مسرحية في خمسة فصول للشاعر الإنجليزي وليام شكسبير وهي آخر أعماله عالج فيها قضية القدر والارادة الانسانية ومن خلالها نرى بروسبير البطل يحرك كل الأحداث متسلحا بنقمته وبالمعرفة وقد رسم شكسبير من خلال شخصيته ظلال الشخصيات الأخرى وتعد هذه المسرحية ضمن المسرح الأخلاقي أين تنتصر قوى الخير في النهاية.
1) عــــرض النــــص في جزيرة ما بالبحر ، كان يعيش رجل عجوز ، اسمه بروسبرو ، مع ابنته ميرندا ، وهى فتاة جميلة جدا . كانا يعيشان في كهف من الصخور ، مقسم إلى عدة اقسام ، منها قسم كان يسميه بروسبرو ركن القراءة . حيث يحتفظ فيه بكتبه التى تهتم أساسا بالسحر ؛ هذا النوع من المعرفة الذى كان ذا نفع كبير له . والصدفة المحضة هى التى ألقت به فوق هذه الجزيرة ، التى كانت تحت سيطرة ساحرة تدعى (سيكوراس) وقد استطاع بروسبرو بواسطة قوة ما تعلمه من فن السحر ، أن يطلق سراح العديد من الجان الطيبين ، التى قامت سيكوراس بحبسهم داخل جذوع أشجار كبيرة ، لأنهم رفضوا أوامرها الشريرة . وأصبح هؤلاء الرجال الطيبون طيعين له ورهن اشارته دائما . وكان من ضمن هؤلاء رئيسهم آريل . ولم يكن (آريل) المرح ، شريرا بطبيعته ، الا أنه كان يسعد جدا لمداعبة مسخ دميم يدعى (كالبان) ، مداعبة ثقيلة ، وذلك بسبب كراهيته له لأنه ابن عدوته القديمة (سيكوراس) .. وقد وجد بروسبو كالبان هذا في الغابة ، وهو كائن غريب مشوه ، أبعد ما يكون عن شكل الانسان ، وأقرب إلى شكل القرد . فأخذه معه في الكهف ، وعلمه الكلام ؛ ورغم عطف بروسبرو عليه ، الا ان طبيعته الشريرة التى ورثها عن أمه سيكوراس ، لم تسمح له بتعلم أى شئ طيب أو نافع . لذلك كان يستخدم كالعبد ، لاحضار الخشب ، والقيام بالأعمال المجهدة ؛ وكانت كل مهمة آريل تنحصر في اجباره على القيام بتلك الأعمال . ولما كان كالبان كسولا ولا يرغب في القيام بعمله ، فقد كان آريل (الذى لا يراه أحد سوى بروسبرو) يأتى من خلفه ويقرصه ، وأحيانا يلقى به في الطين ؛ عند ذلك ، يظل آريل على هيئة قرد يقلب شفتيه سخرية منه . ثم يبدل هيئته في سهولة ، ليصير قنفدا ، ويقذف بنفسه في طريق كالبان ، الذى يفزع من أشواك القنفد التى قد تصيب قدميه العاريتين .. وبكثير من هذه الألاعيب كان آريل يداعبه ، عندما كان كالبان يفشل في أداء مهمة يكون بروسبرو قد كلفه بها. ولما كان بروسبرو يتمتع بطاعة هؤلاء الجان ، فقد كان في مقدوره وبواستطهم أن يأمر الريح ، وأمواج البحر لتثور . واطاعة لأوامره فقد أثاروا عاصفة هوجاء ؛ وجعل ابنته ترى في وسطها سفينة كبيرة تصارع أمواج البحر الشرسة ، التى تكاد تبتلعها في أى لحظة ؛ وقال لها أبوها ، ان هذه السفينة مليئة بمخلوقات مثلهم .
فقالت الفتاة : "أوه ، يا أبى العزيز ، اذا كنت بفن سحرك قد أثرت هذه العاصفة الفظيعة ، فأرجوا أن تضع حدا لمأساتهم الحزينة وتشفق عليهم .. أنظر ! .. ان السفينة على وشك أن تتحطم إلى أشلاء . ياللمساكين ! سوف يغرقون جميعا .. لو كانت لدى القدرة ، لأمرت البحر أن ينحسر ، حتى لا تتحطم السفينة ، بكل تلك الأرواح الغالية الموجودة عليها" . فقال بروسبرو : "ان الأمر ليس بهذه الخطورة ، يا ابنتى ميرندا ، لن يصيبهم أى ضرر ، فلقد أصدرت أوامرى توا ، بألا يصاب أحد ممن على السفينة بأذى . وما فعلت ذلك الا من أجل خاطرك ، يا ابنتى العزيزة .. أنت لا تعرفين من تكونين ، أو من أين أتيت ، ولا تعرفين الكثير عنى سوى أننى أبوك ، وأننا نعيش في هذا الكهف الفقير . هل تستطيعين تذكر الوقت ، قبل أن نأتى إلى هنا ؟ . أعتقد أنك لا تستطيعين ، لأن سنك لم يكن يتعدى الثلاث سنوات حينئذ" . فاجابت ميرندا : "بالتأكيد ، أتذكر ، يا أبى" . فسألها بروسبرو : "لكن ماذا تتذكرين ؟ أتتذكرين الناس أم المنازل .. أخبرينى بما يمكن أن تتذكريه ، يا طفلتى ؟ ! فقالت ميرندا : "يبدو لى ذلك وكأنها ذكرى حلم . لكن ألم يكن لدى أربع أو خمس سيدات ، يقمن على خدمتى ؟ ! . فأجاب بروسبرو : "فعلا ، بل وزيادة . كيف تظل هذه الذكرى عالقة برأسك ؟ هل تذكرين كيف جئنا إلى هنا؟" . فقالت ميرندا : "كلا ، ياسيدى ، لا أذكر شيئا أكثر من ذلك" أكمل (بروسبرو) حديثه فقال : "منذ اثنى عشر عاما يا ميرندا ، كنت دوق ميلانو ، وكنت أنت الأميرة ، وطفلتى الوحيدة .. وكان لى شقيق أصغر منى ، يدعى (أنطونيو) ، وثقت فيه وسلمته كل شئون الدولة ؛ ولما كنت شغوفا بالهدوء والدراسة العميقة ، فتركت تصريف أمور الدولة لعمك ، شقيقى الغادر (لأنه حقيقة أثبت ذلك) .. أما أنا ، فقد أهملت كل اهتماماتى الدنيوية ، ودفنت نفسى داخل كتبى ، وأعطيت كل وقتى لصقل تفكيرى .. أما أخى وقد أصبح مالكا لكل سلطاتى ، فقد بدأ يظن أنه الدوق الحقيقى فالفرصة التى أتحتها له بأن يكون محبوبا من أعوانى ، أيقظت في نفسه الشريرة ، نزعة غرور ليسرق منى دوقيتى (مملكتى) . وسرعان ما نفذ ذلك بمساعدة (ملك نابولى) ، وهو حاكم متسلط ، كان عدوا لى" . فسالته ميرندا :"ولماذا لم يقتلونا ، في هذه الاثناء ؟ " . فأجاب الأب : "لم يجرؤ على ذلك يا طفلتى ، لأن شعبى كان يحبنى حبا جما . فحملونا على سطح السفينة ، وعندما أصبحنا على بعد عدة أميال داخل البحر ، أجبرونا على النزول في قارب صغير ، دون مجاديف أو قلاع أو حبال .. وتركنا هناك ، ظنا منه ، أننا سنموت . لكن لوردا طيبا من بلاطى ، يدعى (جوانزالو) ، كان يحبنى ، وضع سرا في القارب ، ماء وطعاما وملابس ، وبعض الكتب التى كنت أفضلها أكثر من مملكتى " . فقالت ميرندا : "آه ، يا أبى ، لابد أننى سببت لك كثيرا من المتاعب حينذاك ؟ . فقال بروسبرو : "كلا ، يا حبيبتى ، فلقد كنت الملاك الحارس بالنسبة لى كانت ابتسامتك تجعلنى اتحمل بشجاعة حظى العاثر . وظل الطعام معنا حتى رسونا على هذه الجزيرة المهجورة ؛ ومنذ ذلك الحين كانت بهجتى الكبيرة ، تنحصر في تعليمك يا ميرندا ، ومن خلال هذه الدروس تعلمت الكثير " . فقالت ميرندا : "جزاك الله خيرا ، يا أبى العزيز ، والآن قل لى ، عن سبب اثارتك لهذه العاصفة ؟ " . فقال أبوها : "ساقول لك ، هذه العاصفة ، ستجبر اعدائى ، ملك نابولى ، واخى الشرير ، على الالتجاء إلى شاطئ جزيرتنا هذه " . وما أن قال بروسبرو ذلك ، حتى لمس ابنته برقة بعصاه السحرية ، فنامت في التو والحال ، لأن الجن’ آريل ‘ كان قد حضر أمامه ، ليعطيه تقريرا عن العاصفة ، وماذا فعل بركاب السفينة ؛ ورغم أن ‘ميرندا’ لم يكن في استطاعتها رؤية ‘آريل’ ، الا أن’ بروسبرو’ لم يكن يرغب في أن تسمعه وهو يتكلم ، فانه سيبدو لها ، وكأنه يتكلم مع الهواء .. !
(2) الـــخط الدرامـــى يبدأ الخط الدرامى عندما حدث ذات ليلة ان هبت على الجزيرة عاصفة شديدة . وسقط المطر الغزير ، واشتدت الريح العاصفة ، وملأ ضوء البرق وصوت الرعد الأرض والسماء ، وأثارت الريح أمواجا عالية كالجبال ، وأصبح صوت الريح وهدير الأمواج مخيفين مفزعين . وأطلت "ميرندا" من النافذة ، وأصغت إلى صوت العاصفة الرهيب ، ثم نظرت إلى البحر وصرخت قائلة : "أبى ، هناك سفينة في البحر . إنها قريبة جدا من جزيرتنا . الريح تدفعها إلى شاطئنا ، ستقذفها الأمواج فوق الصخور وتحطمها . وفى هدوء أجاب "بروسبرو" : لقد أثرت بسحرى هذه الأمواج . أنا الذى جعلت الريح تدفع هذه السفينة إلى الصخور . لقد سبق أن قصصت عليك ما فعله بى أخى "أنطونيو" بمساعدة حاكم "نابولى" إن أخى وحاكم نابولى فوق هذه السفينة . "صاحت "ميرندا" : "لكنهم سيموتون ! أرجوك يا أبى لا تدعهم يغرقون . " أجابها "بروسبرو" : "لاتخافى . لن أدعهم يموتون . لن يصيبهم أذى . " وقذفت الأمواج السفينة فوق صخور شاطئ الجزيرة المسحورة ، فتحطمت . لكن "أنطونيو" وصل إلى الأرض سالماً . ووصل معه حاكم "نابولى" . وكان (فرديناند) ، ابن ملك "نابولى" في السفينة مع والده ، ووصل هو أيضاً إلى الأرض سالماً . لكن "فرديناند" وصل إلى مكان يبعد كثيراً عن المكان الذى خرج فيه أبوه مع "أنطونيو" . وهكذا ظن "فرديناند" أن والده حاكم "نابولى" قد مات غرقاً مع "أنطونيو" كما ظن حاكم "نابولى" مع "أنطونيو" أن "فرديناند" قد مات غرقاً . وكانت "ميرندا" تجلس أمام باب المنزل تتحدث مع والدها ، عندما خرج من بين أشجار الغابات شاب وسيم .. فصرخت "ميرندا" : "انظر يا أبى .. هناك شئ يخرج من الغابة ويتجه نحونا . ما هذا الشىء ؟ هل هو حيوان أم جنى ؟ إن شكله لطيف جميل . كانت "ميرندا" طفلة صغيرة جداً عندما وضعها عمها "أنطونيو" في القارب مع والدها . لذلك لم يكن قد سبق لها أن شاهدت أى رجل ما عدا والدها . أجاب "برسبرو" : "إنه ليس وحشاً ولا جنياً . إنه رجل ، وقد أحضرته بسحرى إلى هذا المكان " وسألت "ميرندا" : "ومن يكون هذا الرجل ؟ إنه لا يشبهك يا أبى .. إنه أكثر منك وسامة" . أجاب "بروسبرو" : "إنه "فرديناند" ابن حاكم "نابولى" وقد أحضرته إلى هنا بسحرى ، وسأحتفظ به معى حتى يموت . سأجعل منه خادما لى . لن أدعه يستريح . سيظل يعمل حتى يموت من التعب . إنه ابن رجل سيئ شرير" . وعندما سمعت "ميرندا" هذا ، حزنت جداً وأخذت تبكى . فقال والدها : "لا تبكى . لماذا تبكين من أجل ابن رجل سيئ ؟ " وطلب "بروسبرو" من "فرديناند" أن يقوم بقطع الأخشاب اللازمة لأشعال النار ، بينما لم يسبق له أن أمسك فأساً ، ولا يعرف كيف يقوم بتقطيع الأخشاب . لم يكن معتاداً على أداء الأعمال الشاقة أو المرهقة ، لذلك سرعان ما أرهقه التعب ، وأصيب في يديه بالجروح. وبعد أن أتم قطع كمية من الأخشاب ، أمره "بروسبرو" أن يحمل كتل الخشب ، ويضعها في المخزن داخل المنزل . وأخذ ‘فردينان’ يحمل كتل الخشب الثقيلة . ولم يكن قد اعتاد حمل أى شىء ثقيل ، فشعر بالإعياء والمرض . وخرجت "ميرندا" من المنزل ، وشاهدت "فرديناند" يقوم بكل ذلك العمل الشاق . وأحست بما أصابه من إرهاق وتعب ، فتألمت وسالت دموعها على خديها . وقامت تساعد "فرديناند" في حمل كتلة من الخشب فوق كتفيه . ثم أسرعت تجرى إلى والدها ، وقالت له : "أنا أعرف أن والد هذا الفتى إنسان شرير ، لكن "فرديناند" الإبن ليس إنساناً شريراً . لست أجد فيه ما يجعلنى أعتبره سيئاً . أرجوك يا أبى لا تكن شديد القسوة عليه .. كن رحيما به ولا تؤاخذه بذنب فعله أبوه" . لكن "بروسبرو" أجاب غاضباً : "لماذا تطلبين منى أن أرحمه ؟ ! لم يكن والده رحيماً بى ولا بك . دعيه يشتغل حتى يسقط ميتاً من التعب" . ثم وصل بروسبرو قراءة كتاب السحر الذى كان بيده . وعادت "ميرندا" إلى "فرديناند" ، وقالت له والدموع تملأ عينيها : "دعنى أساعدك . اقطع لى كتلة خشبية صغيرة ، حتى أستطيع حملها إلى داخل المنزل" . وهكذا طنت "ميرندا" أن والدها "بروسبرو" غاضب من "فرديناند" ، وأنه لن يستجيب إلى توسلاتها ... أما الحقيقة . فكانت شيئاً آخر !! لقد أرد "بروسبرو" أن تظن ‘ميراندا’ أنه غاضب ، لكن غضبه كان مجرد تظاهر وتمثيل. كان بروسبرو ينفذ خطة رسمها في ذهنه . كان قد دبر مجىء "أنطونيو" وحاكم "نابولى" وابنه إلى الجزيرة ، لأمر ما في نفسه .... لكن .. لن نكشف الآن سر تدبيره ... من بين الأمواج العالية ، خرج "أنطونيو" وحاكم "نابولى" مبللين إلى الشاطىء ، بعد أن تحطمت بهما السفينة . وعرف "بروسبرو" أنهم عدويه اللذين قررا نفيه إلى الجزيرة ، قد أصبحا تحت رحمته ، فنادى "آريل" خادمه من الجن ، وقال له : "آريل" .. اذهب وابحث حتى تجد "أنطونيو" وحاكم نابولى . اجعلهما يضلان الطريق ، ويسيران بغير توقف . ابعدهما عن أى ماء أو طعام . اجعل الهواء الساخن يهب عليهما ، ثم سلط الريح الباردة لتجمدهما . عاقبهما بكل شىء مؤلم . لا تعطهما فرصة للراحة أو للتوقف . هيا اذهب ، ونفذ ما أمرتك به في دقة ودون إهمال " . وذهب "آريل" ووجد "أنطونيو" وحاكم "نابولى" . كان "أنطونيو" يقول للحاكم : "دعنا نتجول لنكتشف هذه الجزيرة ، ونبحث عن ماء وطعام " . هنا أخذ "آريل" ينادى "أنطونيو" وحاكم "نابولى" وهما لايروه ، لكنهما تبعا صوته ... تبعاه بين أشجار الغابات ، وفوق صخور الجبال ، وخلال مياه الأنهار . وكانت حرارة الشمس شديدة ، فأخذ هواء ساخن يلفح وجهيهما وجسديهما . ثم انقلب الهواء بارداً ، وهبت عاصفة ثلجية جمدتهما . وأصابهما التعب والألم ، ولم يعد في مقدورهما أن يواصلا السير ، لكن "آريل" لم يسمح لهما بأية راحة ، وظل يسوقهما أمامه دون توقف . وأخيراً ، سقطا فوق الأرض . لم يعد في استطاعتهما أن يتقدما خطوة واحدة أخرى . لكن "آريل" جعلهما يشاهدان ماء وطعاماً شهياً ، فأسرعا يجلسان حول الطعام ، وهنا أسرع "آريل" فأبعد الطعام والشراب ، فلم يجد الرجلان أمامهما شيئاً ! وأخيراً قال لهما "آريل" : "إنك "أنطونيو" أخو "بروسبرو" . لقد خدعته واستوليت على الحكم بعد أن طردته من ميلانو . وأنت حاكم "نابولى" لقد ساعدت "أنطونيو" على طرد أخيه . هذه هى جزيرة بروسبرو السحرية ، وأنا خادم "بروسبرو" المطيع . لقد أرسلنى لأقول لكما هذا ، ولأجعلكما تتذكران ما فعلتماه معه " . أغلق "بروسبرو" كتابه الذى كان يقرأ فيه ، واستدعى "آريل" وقال له ! "أحضر "أنطونيو" وحاكم "نابولى" . لقد اكتمل تدبيرى "
(5) أشخاص المسرحية • بروسبرو ، دوق ميلانو المنفى . • أنطونيو ، شقيقه الذى استولى على السلطة دون وجه حق . • ملك نابولى . • فرديناند ، ابن ملك نابولى . • ميراندا ، ابنة بروسبرو . • آريل ، جنى خادم بروسبرو . • كالبان ، مسخ دميم الخلقة .
(6) المضمـــــون من تتابع الأحداث في مسرحية العاصفة لشكسبير نلاحظ ان مضمون هذه المسرحية واضح وهادف وهو ان الإنسان اذا لم يتزود بالقوة والعلم يصبح شخصا ضعيفا تهزمه القوى البشرية كما فعل أنطونيو مع اخيه بروسبرو بأن طمع في مملكته واستولى على عرشه وقصره وطرده بعيدا مع طفلته الوحيدة "ميراندا" لتعيش في جزيرة نائية في البحر وذلك نتيجة لإهمال بروسبرو شئون ولايته واهتمامه بالسحر أكثر من أمور المملكة فلاقى ما لاقى من الغدر وتأمر ملك ولاية نابولى مع اخيه "أنطونيو" وطرده لمدة اثنى عشر عاما غريبا تائها في الجزيرة ، واننا نلاحظ ان لولا العلم الميتافيزيقى الذى عشقه بروسبرو ما استطاع ان يصل إلى بر الامان وهو تعلمه للسحر واتخاذه كسلاح استطاع به ان يعطى لاخيه درسا قاسيا هو وحاكم نابولى .. واننى في رأيى ان هذا العلم أى السحر لا يجدى في بعض الأحيان لأتصاله بالعالم السفلى فهو ضد العقيدة وضد ناموس الطبيعة فضره أكثر من نفعه فهو نافع لفترة مؤقتة لذا في النهاية تخلص منه بروسبرو والقى بكتب السحر بعيدا وذلك بدفنها تحت أرض الجزيرة إلى مملكته وقد عزم على التسلح بالإرادة والثقة بالنفس واليقظة والحرص والتفانى في خدمة مملكته وشعبه ، تسلح بالقوة والمعرفة الحقيقية ، والاشراف التام على الولاية وعدم اتاحة الفرصة للطامعين في السيطرة واستغلال النفوذ وهذا الهدف هو ما يرمز اليه كاتب المسرحية وليم شكسبير وخلال الحوار النفسى لبطل المسرحية بروسبرو وحديثه مع ابنته ميراندا .
samedi 4 avril 2009
jeudi 18 décembre 2008
1)GRMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD
1 Introduction to the Grammar Translation Method
Latin and Ancient Greek are known as "dead" languages, based on the fact that people no longer speak them for the purpose of interactive communication. Yet they are still acknowledged as important languages to learn (especially Latin) for the purpose of gaining access to classical literature, and up until fairly recently, for the kinds of grammar training that led to the mental dexterity considered so important in any higher education study stream.
Latin has been studied for centuries, with the prime objectives of learning how to read classical Latin texts, understanding the fundamentals of grammar and translation, and gaining insights into some important foreign influences Latin has had on the development of other European languages. The method used to teach it overwhelmingly bore those objectives in mind, and came to be known (appropriately!) as the Classical Method. It is now more commonly known in Foreign Language Teaching circles as the Grammar Translation Method.
It is hard to decide which is more surprising - the fact that this method has survived right up until today (alongside a host of more modern and more "enlightened" methods), or the fact that what was essentially a method developed for the study of "dead" languages involving little or no spoken communication or listening comprehension is still used for the study of languages that are very much alive and require competence not only in terms of reading, writing and structure, but also speaking, listening and interactive communication. How has such an archaic method, "remembered with distaste by thousands of school learners" (Richards and Rodgers, 1986:4) perservered?
It is worth looking at the objectives, features and typical techniques commonly associated with the Grammar Translation Method, in order to both understand how it works and why it has shown such tenacity as an acceptable (even recommended or respected) language teaching philosophy in many countries and institutions around the world.
1.2 The Grammar Translation Method - Objectives
Most teachers who employ the Grammar Translation Method to teach English would probably tell you that (for their students at least) the most fundamental reason for learning the language is to give learners access to English literature, develop their minds "mentally" through foreign language learning, and to build in them the kinds of grammar, reading, vocabulary and translation skills necessary to pass any one of a variety of mandatory written tests required at high school or tertiary level. Some teachers who use the method might also tell you that it is the most effective way to prepare students for "global communication" by beginning with the key skills of reading and grammar. Others may even go so far as to admit that they think it is the "least stressful" for students, because almost all the teaching occurs in L1 and students are rarely called upon to speak the language in any communicative fashion. More conservative teachers from more conservative countries are even likely to be put out by anyone merely questioning the method, and a typical response could be "because that's the way it's always been done - it's the way I learned and look, now I'm a professor". The point being, the method is institutionalized and considered fundamental. Such teachers are probably even unware that the method has a name and can be compared alongside other methods.
1.3 The Grammar Translation Method - Key Features
According to Prator and Celce-Murcia (1979:3), the key features of the Grammar Translation Method are as follows:
(1) Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language.
(2) Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.
(3) Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.
(4) Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words.
(5) Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.
(6) Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in in grammatical analysis.
(7) Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue.
(8) Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.
4 The Grammar Translation Method - Typical Techniques
Diane Larsen-Freeman, in her book Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (2000:19-21) provides expanded descriptions of some common/typical techniques closely associated with the Grammar Translation Method. The listing here is in summary form only.
(1) Translation of a Literary Passage (Translating target language to native language)
(2) Reading Comprehension Questions (Finding information in a passage, making inferences and relating to personal experience)
(3) Antonyms/Synonyms (Finding antonyms and synonyms for words or sets of words)
(4) Cognates (Learning spelling/sound patterns that correspond between L1 and the target language)
(5) Deductive Application of Rule (Understanding grammar rules and their exceptions, then applying them to new examples)
(6) Fill-in-the-blanks (Filling in gaps in sentences with new words or items of a particular grammar type)
(7) Memorization (Memorizing vocabulary lists, grammatical rules and grammatical paradigms) (8) Use Words in Sentences (Students create sentences to illustrate they know the meaning and use of new words)
(9) Composition (Students write about a topic using the target language)
5 Comments
Many people who have undertaken foreign language learning at high schools or universities even in the past 10 years or so may remember many of the teaching techniques listed above for the Grammar Translation Method. They may also recall that the language learning experience was uninspiring, rather boring, or even left them with a sense of frustration when they traveled to countries where the language was used only to find they couldn't understand what people were saying and struggled mightily to express themselves at the most basic level. Very few modern language teaching experts would be quick to say that this is an effective language teaching method, and fewer would dare to try and assert that it results in any kind of communicative competence. As Richards and Rodgers (1986:5) state, "It is a method for which there is no theory. There is no literature that offers a rationale or justification for it that attempts to relate it to issues in linguistics, psychology, or educational theory." And yet the Grammar Translation Method is still common in many countries - even popular. Brown attempts to explain why the method is still employed by pointing out: "It requires few specialized skills on the part of teachers. Tests of grammar rules and of translations are easy to construct and can be objectively scored. Many standardized tests of foreign languages still do not attempt to tap into communicative abilities, so students have little motivation to go beyond grammar analogies, translations, and rote exercises."
6 Criticism;
The method by definition has a very limited scope of objectives. Because speaking or any kind of spontaneous creative output was missing from the curriculum, students would often fail at speaking or even letter writing in the target language. A noteworthy quote describing the effect of this method comes from Bahlsen, who was a student of Plötz, a major proponent of this method in the 19th century. In commenting about writing letters or speaking he said he would be overcome with "a veritable forest of paragraphs, and an impenetrable thicket of grammatical rules." Later, theorists such as Vietor, Passy, Berlitz, and Jespersen began to talk about what a new kind of foreign language instruction needed, shedding light on what the grammar translation was missing. They supported teaching the language, not about the language, and teaching in the target language, emphasizing speech as well as text. Through grammar translation, students lacked an active role in the classroom, often correcting their own work and strictly following the textbook.
7 Conclusion;
The grammar translation method stayed in schools until the 1960s, when a complete foreign language pedagogy evaluation was taking place. In the meantime, teachers experimented with approaches like the direct method in post-war and Depression era classrooms, but without much structure
1 Introduction to the Grammar Translation Method
Latin and Ancient Greek are known as "dead" languages, based on the fact that people no longer speak them for the purpose of interactive communication. Yet they are still acknowledged as important languages to learn (especially Latin) for the purpose of gaining access to classical literature, and up until fairly recently, for the kinds of grammar training that led to the mental dexterity considered so important in any higher education study stream.
Latin has been studied for centuries, with the prime objectives of learning how to read classical Latin texts, understanding the fundamentals of grammar and translation, and gaining insights into some important foreign influences Latin has had on the development of other European languages. The method used to teach it overwhelmingly bore those objectives in mind, and came to be known (appropriately!) as the Classical Method. It is now more commonly known in Foreign Language Teaching circles as the Grammar Translation Method.
It is hard to decide which is more surprising - the fact that this method has survived right up until today (alongside a host of more modern and more "enlightened" methods), or the fact that what was essentially a method developed for the study of "dead" languages involving little or no spoken communication or listening comprehension is still used for the study of languages that are very much alive and require competence not only in terms of reading, writing and structure, but also speaking, listening and interactive communication. How has such an archaic method, "remembered with distaste by thousands of school learners" (Richards and Rodgers, 1986:4) perservered?
It is worth looking at the objectives, features and typical techniques commonly associated with the Grammar Translation Method, in order to both understand how it works and why it has shown such tenacity as an acceptable (even recommended or respected) language teaching philosophy in many countries and institutions around the world.
1.2 The Grammar Translation Method - Objectives
Most teachers who employ the Grammar Translation Method to teach English would probably tell you that (for their students at least) the most fundamental reason for learning the language is to give learners access to English literature, develop their minds "mentally" through foreign language learning, and to build in them the kinds of grammar, reading, vocabulary and translation skills necessary to pass any one of a variety of mandatory written tests required at high school or tertiary level. Some teachers who use the method might also tell you that it is the most effective way to prepare students for "global communication" by beginning with the key skills of reading and grammar. Others may even go so far as to admit that they think it is the "least stressful" for students, because almost all the teaching occurs in L1 and students are rarely called upon to speak the language in any communicative fashion. More conservative teachers from more conservative countries are even likely to be put out by anyone merely questioning the method, and a typical response could be "because that's the way it's always been done - it's the way I learned and look, now I'm a professor". The point being, the method is institutionalized and considered fundamental. Such teachers are probably even unware that the method has a name and can be compared alongside other methods.
1.3 The Grammar Translation Method - Key Features
According to Prator and Celce-Murcia (1979:3), the key features of the Grammar Translation Method are as follows:
(1) Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language.
(2) Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.
(3) Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.
(4) Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words.
(5) Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.
(6) Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in in grammatical analysis.
(7) Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue.
(8) Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.
4 The Grammar Translation Method - Typical Techniques
Diane Larsen-Freeman, in her book Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (2000:19-21) provides expanded descriptions of some common/typical techniques closely associated with the Grammar Translation Method. The listing here is in summary form only.
(1) Translation of a Literary Passage (Translating target language to native language)
(2) Reading Comprehension Questions (Finding information in a passage, making inferences and relating to personal experience)
(3) Antonyms/Synonyms (Finding antonyms and synonyms for words or sets of words)
(4) Cognates (Learning spelling/sound patterns that correspond between L1 and the target language)
(5) Deductive Application of Rule (Understanding grammar rules and their exceptions, then applying them to new examples)
(6) Fill-in-the-blanks (Filling in gaps in sentences with new words or items of a particular grammar type)
(7) Memorization (Memorizing vocabulary lists, grammatical rules and grammatical paradigms) (8) Use Words in Sentences (Students create sentences to illustrate they know the meaning and use of new words)
(9) Composition (Students write about a topic using the target language)
5 Comments
Many people who have undertaken foreign language learning at high schools or universities even in the past 10 years or so may remember many of the teaching techniques listed above for the Grammar Translation Method. They may also recall that the language learning experience was uninspiring, rather boring, or even left them with a sense of frustration when they traveled to countries where the language was used only to find they couldn't understand what people were saying and struggled mightily to express themselves at the most basic level. Very few modern language teaching experts would be quick to say that this is an effective language teaching method, and fewer would dare to try and assert that it results in any kind of communicative competence. As Richards and Rodgers (1986:5) state, "It is a method for which there is no theory. There is no literature that offers a rationale or justification for it that attempts to relate it to issues in linguistics, psychology, or educational theory." And yet the Grammar Translation Method is still common in many countries - even popular. Brown attempts to explain why the method is still employed by pointing out: "It requires few specialized skills on the part of teachers. Tests of grammar rules and of translations are easy to construct and can be objectively scored. Many standardized tests of foreign languages still do not attempt to tap into communicative abilities, so students have little motivation to go beyond grammar analogies, translations, and rote exercises."
6 Criticism;
The method by definition has a very limited scope of objectives. Because speaking or any kind of spontaneous creative output was missing from the curriculum, students would often fail at speaking or even letter writing in the target language. A noteworthy quote describing the effect of this method comes from Bahlsen, who was a student of Plötz, a major proponent of this method in the 19th century. In commenting about writing letters or speaking he said he would be overcome with "a veritable forest of paragraphs, and an impenetrable thicket of grammatical rules." Later, theorists such as Vietor, Passy, Berlitz, and Jespersen began to talk about what a new kind of foreign language instruction needed, shedding light on what the grammar translation was missing. They supported teaching the language, not about the language, and teaching in the target language, emphasizing speech as well as text. Through grammar translation, students lacked an active role in the classroom, often correcting their own work and strictly following the textbook.
7 Conclusion;
The grammar translation method stayed in schools until the 1960s, when a complete foreign language pedagogy evaluation was taking place. In the meantime, teachers experimented with approaches like the direct method in post-war and Depression era classrooms, but without much structure
The Direct Method
The Direct Method is the learning of language in a relevant setting. This method has one basic rule and that is that no translation is allowed. The meaning of the name "Direct Method" comes from the fact that meaning is to be conveyed directly into the second language through demonstration and visual aids.
The main principles of the Direct Method are as follows:
*German is not used in the classroom.
*The learner is actively involved in using the language in realistic everyday situations.
*Students are encouraged to think in the target language.
*Speaking is taught first before reading or writing.
*Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught.
*Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures.
*Abstract vocabulary is taught by association of ideas.
*This method states that the printed word should be kept away from the second language learner for as long as possible.
1 Strategies using the Direct Method
1. Q & A: The teacher asks questions of any nature and the students answer. In preparation for this activity the teacher models, extensively, the use of complete answers to questions. Once doing this activity the teacher expects full sentences as answers to each question. Students can also be given the opportunity to ask the questions.
Objective: Experiment with words and sentence patterns to create interest and variety.
2. Dictation: The teacher chooses a grade appropriate passage from a book and reads the text aloud three times. The first time the passage is read the students only listen. The second time the passage is read it is read phrase by phrase, with the teacher pausing long enough for students to write down what they have heard. The third time the text is read, it is read at normal speed and the students check their work.
Objective: Listen attentively, courteously, and purposefully to a range of texts from a variety of cultural traditions for pleasure and information.
3. Reading Aloud: Students take turns reading sections of a passage, play, or dialog out loud. At the end of each student's turn the teacher uses gestures, pictures, examples, or role play to help the students make meaning of the text.
Objective: Orally and silently read a range of contemporary and classical grade appropriate texts for enjoyment and information.
4. Getting Students to Self-Correct: The teacher when provided with the opportunity should have the students self-correct by offering them a choice between what they said and the proper pronunciation. For example if the student says, "I have cree apples," the teacher should say, "Do you have cree apples or three apples?"
Objective: Reflect on speaking behaviors and strategies.
5. Map Drawing: Students are provided with a blank map of Canada. The teacher gives specific instructions to the students. Once they are finished, their map will be completely labeled. The teacher takes the same map on an overhead and the students give the teacher instructions on how to label the map.
Objectives: Listen purposefully to determine the main ideas and important details; use language appropriate to audience, purpose, and situation
The Direct Method is the learning of language in a relevant setting. This method has one basic rule and that is that no translation is allowed. The meaning of the name "Direct Method" comes from the fact that meaning is to be conveyed directly into the second language through demonstration and visual aids.
The main principles of the Direct Method are as follows:
*German is not used in the classroom.
*The learner is actively involved in using the language in realistic everyday situations.
*Students are encouraged to think in the target language.
*Speaking is taught first before reading or writing.
*Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught.
*Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures.
*Abstract vocabulary is taught by association of ideas.
*This method states that the printed word should be kept away from the second language learner for as long as possible.
1 Strategies using the Direct Method
1. Q & A: The teacher asks questions of any nature and the students answer. In preparation for this activity the teacher models, extensively, the use of complete answers to questions. Once doing this activity the teacher expects full sentences as answers to each question. Students can also be given the opportunity to ask the questions.
Objective: Experiment with words and sentence patterns to create interest and variety.
2. Dictation: The teacher chooses a grade appropriate passage from a book and reads the text aloud three times. The first time the passage is read the students only listen. The second time the passage is read it is read phrase by phrase, with the teacher pausing long enough for students to write down what they have heard. The third time the text is read, it is read at normal speed and the students check their work.
Objective: Listen attentively, courteously, and purposefully to a range of texts from a variety of cultural traditions for pleasure and information.
3. Reading Aloud: Students take turns reading sections of a passage, play, or dialog out loud. At the end of each student's turn the teacher uses gestures, pictures, examples, or role play to help the students make meaning of the text.
Objective: Orally and silently read a range of contemporary and classical grade appropriate texts for enjoyment and information.
4. Getting Students to Self-Correct: The teacher when provided with the opportunity should have the students self-correct by offering them a choice between what they said and the proper pronunciation. For example if the student says, "I have cree apples," the teacher should say, "Do you have cree apples or three apples?"
Objective: Reflect on speaking behaviors and strategies.
5. Map Drawing: Students are provided with a blank map of Canada. The teacher gives specific instructions to the students. Once they are finished, their map will be completely labeled. The teacher takes the same map on an overhead and the students give the teacher instructions on how to label the map.
Objectives: Listen purposefully to determine the main ideas and important details; use language appropriate to audience, purpose, and situation
The Adiolingual Method
This method of Language Learning is also called the Aural-Oral Method. This method is said to result in rapid acquisition of speaking and listening skills. The audiolingual method drills students in the use of grammatical sentence patterns. When this method was developed it was thought that the way to acquire the sentence patterns of the second language was through conditioning or helping learners to respond correctly to stimuli through shaping and reinforcement.
The Audiolingual Method is based on the following principles:
*Speaking and listening competence preceded reading and writing competence.
*Use of German is highly discouraged in the classroom.
*The development of language skills is a matter of habit formulation.
*Students practice particular patterns of language through structured dialogue and drill until response is automatic.
*Structured patterns in language are taught using repetitive drills.
*The emphasis is on having students produce error free utterances.
*This method of language learning supports kinesthetic learning styles.
*Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught. Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures. Abstract vocabulary is taught through association of ideas.
*The printed word must be kept away from the second language learner as long as possible.
.1 Strategies using the Adiolingual Method
1. Dialog Memorization: Students are given a short dialog to memorize then they must use mimicry and applied role playing to present the dialog. Examples of dialogs that could be used are included in the materials section.
Objective: Experiment with language and non-verbal elements (eg. gesture) to achieve an effect for a particular purpose and audience.
2. Backward Build Up: Provide students with the the sentence fragments found in the materials section. Students repeat each part of the sentence starting at the end of the sentence and expanding backwards through the sentence adding each part in sequence.
Objective: Participate in a variety of shared language experiences.
3. Transformation Drill: The teacher provides a question which must be transformed into a statement. An extension of this activity is to have the students make a question out of a statement.
Objective: Select from a range of word choices and use simple sentence patterns to communicate ideas and information.
4. Complete the Dialog: Have the students fill in the blanks in the dialogs provided. The proper English word must be inserted into the text. This activity is much like a cloze activity.
Objective: Make connections between text, prior knowledge, and personal experiences.
5. Dictation: Using any piece of literature at the students' reading level, read the piece aloud several times. Have the students write down what they hear. The idea is to write what they have heard as literally as possible.
Objective: Listen purposefully to determine main ideas and important details.
6. Flashcards: Using flashcards with words that are relevant to them brainstorm other words about the word on the card. A new word could be chosen each day.
Objective: Make connections between text, prior knowledge, and personal experiences.
7. Chain Drill: A chain of conversation forms around the room as the teacher greets or questions a student and that student responds then turns to the next student and greets or asks a question of the second student and the chain continues.
Objective: Participate in shared language experiences.
8. The Alphabet Game: The teacher picks a category, such as the supermarket. Then the first student says, "I am going to the supermarket. I need a few apples." (The first student names something beginning with A.) The second student says, "I am going to the supermarket. I need a few apples and I need a few bananas." The game continues in this manner with each consecutive student adding an item beginning with the next letter after repeating the items named before their own.
Objectives: Participate in shared listening experiences. Share ideas and experiences in large and small groups.
This method of Language Learning is also called the Aural-Oral Method. This method is said to result in rapid acquisition of speaking and listening skills. The audiolingual method drills students in the use of grammatical sentence patterns. When this method was developed it was thought that the way to acquire the sentence patterns of the second language was through conditioning or helping learners to respond correctly to stimuli through shaping and reinforcement.
The Audiolingual Method is based on the following principles:
*Speaking and listening competence preceded reading and writing competence.
*Use of German is highly discouraged in the classroom.
*The development of language skills is a matter of habit formulation.
*Students practice particular patterns of language through structured dialogue and drill until response is automatic.
*Structured patterns in language are taught using repetitive drills.
*The emphasis is on having students produce error free utterances.
*This method of language learning supports kinesthetic learning styles.
*Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught. Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures. Abstract vocabulary is taught through association of ideas.
*The printed word must be kept away from the second language learner as long as possible.
.1 Strategies using the Adiolingual Method
1. Dialog Memorization: Students are given a short dialog to memorize then they must use mimicry and applied role playing to present the dialog. Examples of dialogs that could be used are included in the materials section.
Objective: Experiment with language and non-verbal elements (eg. gesture) to achieve an effect for a particular purpose and audience.
2. Backward Build Up: Provide students with the the sentence fragments found in the materials section. Students repeat each part of the sentence starting at the end of the sentence and expanding backwards through the sentence adding each part in sequence.
Objective: Participate in a variety of shared language experiences.
3. Transformation Drill: The teacher provides a question which must be transformed into a statement. An extension of this activity is to have the students make a question out of a statement.
Objective: Select from a range of word choices and use simple sentence patterns to communicate ideas and information.
4. Complete the Dialog: Have the students fill in the blanks in the dialogs provided. The proper English word must be inserted into the text. This activity is much like a cloze activity.
Objective: Make connections between text, prior knowledge, and personal experiences.
5. Dictation: Using any piece of literature at the students' reading level, read the piece aloud several times. Have the students write down what they hear. The idea is to write what they have heard as literally as possible.
Objective: Listen purposefully to determine main ideas and important details.
6. Flashcards: Using flashcards with words that are relevant to them brainstorm other words about the word on the card. A new word could be chosen each day.
Objective: Make connections between text, prior knowledge, and personal experiences.
7. Chain Drill: A chain of conversation forms around the room as the teacher greets or questions a student and that student responds then turns to the next student and greets or asks a question of the second student and the chain continues.
Objective: Participate in shared language experiences.
8. The Alphabet Game: The teacher picks a category, such as the supermarket. Then the first student says, "I am going to the supermarket. I need a few apples." (The first student names something beginning with A.) The second student says, "I am going to the supermarket. I need a few apples and I need a few bananas." The game continues in this manner with each consecutive student adding an item beginning with the next letter after repeating the items named before their own.
Objectives: Participate in shared listening experiences. Share ideas and experiences in large and small groups.
Communicative language teaching approach
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. It is also referred to as “communicative approach to the teaching of foreign languages” or simply the “Communicative Approach”.
Relationship with other methods and approaches
Historically, CLT has been seen as a response to the Audio-Lingual Method (ALM), and as an extension or development of the Notional-Functional Syllabus. Task-based language learning, a more recent refinement of CLT, has gained considerably in popularity.
The Audio-Lingual Method; The Audio-Lingual Method (ALM) arose as a direct result of the need for foreign language proficiency in listening and speaking skills during and after World War II. It is closely tied to behaviorism, and thus made drilling, repetition, and habit-formation central elements of instruction. Proponents of ALM felt that this emphasis on repetition needed a corollary emphasis on accuracy, claiming that continual repetition of errors would lead to the fixed acquisition of incorrect structures and non-standard pronunciation.
In the classroom, lessons were often organized by grammatical structure and presented through short dialogs. Often, students listened repeatedly to recordings of conversations (for example, in the language lab ) and focused on accurately mimicking the pronunciation and grammatical structures in these dialogs.
Critics of ALM asserted that this over-emphasis on repetition and accuracy ultimately did not help students achieve communicative competence in the target language. Noam Chomsky argued "Language is not a habit structure. Ordinary linguistic behaviour characteristically involves innovation, formation of new sentences and patterns in accordance with rules of great abstractness and intricacy". They looked for new ways to present and organize language instruction, and advocated the notional functional syllabus, and eventually CLT as the most effective way to teach second and foreign languages. However, audio-lingual methodology is still prevalent in many text books and teaching materials. Moreover, advocates of audio-lingual methods point to their success in improving aspects of language that are habit driven, most notably pronunciation.
The Notional Functional Syllabus; A notional-functional syllabus is more a way of organizing a language learning curriculum than a method or an approach to teaching. In a notional-functional syllabus, instruction is organized not in terms of grammatical structure as had often been done with the ALM, but in terms of “notions” and “functions.” In this model, a “notion” is a particular context in which people communicate, and a “function” is a specific purpose for a speaker in a given context. As an example, the “notion” or context shopping requires numerous language functions including asking about prices or features of a product and bargaining. Similarly, the notion party would require numerous functions like introductions and greetings and discussing interests and hobbies. Proponents of the notional-functional syllabus claimed that it addressed the deficiencies they found in the ALM by helping students develop their ability to effectively communicate in a variety of real-life contexts.
Learning by teaching (LdL)
Main article: Learning by teaching;;; Learning by teaching is a widespread method in Germany (Jean-Pol Martin). The students take the teacher's role and teach their peers. An important target is developing websensibility.
Overview of CLT;
As an extension of the notional-functional syllabus, CLT also places great emphasis on helping students use the target language in a variety of contexts and places great emphasis on learning language functions. Unlike the ALM, its primary focus is on helping learners create meaning rather than helping them develop perfectly grammatical structures or acquire native-like pronunciation. This means that successfully learning a foreign language is assessed in terms of how well learners have developed their communicative competence, which can loosely be defined as their ability to apply knowledge of both formal and sociolinguistic aspects of a language with adequate proficiency to communicate.
CLT is usually characterized as a broad approach to teaching, rather than as a teaching method with a clearly defined set of classroom practices. As such, it is most often defined as a list of general principles or features. One of the most recognized of these lists is David Nunan’s (1991) five features of CLT:
1 An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language.
2 The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation.
3 The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also on the Learning Management process.
4 An enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning.
5 An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities outside the classroom.
These five features are claimed by practitioners of CLT to show that they are very interested in the needs and desires of their learners as well as the connection between the language as it is taught in their class and as it used outside the classroom. Under this broad umbrella definition, any teaching practice that helps students develop their communicative competence in an authentic context is deemed an acceptable and beneficial form of instruction. Thus, in the classroom CLT often takes the form of pair and group work requiring negotiation and cooperation between learners, fluency-based activities that encourage learners to develop their confidence, role-plays in which students practice and develop language functions, as well as judicious use of grammar and pronunciation focused activities.
Classroom activities used in CLT; Example Activities
*Role Play
*Interviews
*Information Gap
*Language Exchanges
*Surveys
*Pair Work
*Learning by teaching
However, not all courses that utilize the Communicative Language approach will restrict their activities solely to these. Some courses will have the students take occasional grammar quizzes, or prepare at home using non-communicative drills, for instance.
Critiques of CLT;
One of the most famous attacks on Communicative Language teaching was offered by Michael Swan in the English Language Teaching Journal on 1985[1] Henry Widdowson responded in defense of CLT, also in the ELT Journal (1985 39(3):158-161). More recently other writers (e.g. Bax[2]) have critiqued CLT for paying insufficient attention to the context in which teaching and learning take place, though CLT has also been defended against this charge (e.g. Harmer 2003[3]).
The Communicative Approach often seems to be interpreted as: if the teacher understands the student we have good communication. What can happen though is that a teacher who is from the same region, understands the students when they make errors resulting from first language influence. One problem with this is that native speakers of the target language can have great difficulty understanding them. This observation may call for new thinking on and adaptation of the communicative approach. The adapted communicative approach should be a simulation where the teacher pretends to understand only that what any regular speaker of the target language would, and should react accordingly.[4]
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. It is also referred to as “communicative approach to the teaching of foreign languages” or simply the “Communicative Approach”.
Relationship with other methods and approaches
Historically, CLT has been seen as a response to the Audio-Lingual Method (ALM), and as an extension or development of the Notional-Functional Syllabus. Task-based language learning, a more recent refinement of CLT, has gained considerably in popularity.
The Audio-Lingual Method; The Audio-Lingual Method (ALM) arose as a direct result of the need for foreign language proficiency in listening and speaking skills during and after World War II. It is closely tied to behaviorism, and thus made drilling, repetition, and habit-formation central elements of instruction. Proponents of ALM felt that this emphasis on repetition needed a corollary emphasis on accuracy, claiming that continual repetition of errors would lead to the fixed acquisition of incorrect structures and non-standard pronunciation.
In the classroom, lessons were often organized by grammatical structure and presented through short dialogs. Often, students listened repeatedly to recordings of conversations (for example, in the language lab ) and focused on accurately mimicking the pronunciation and grammatical structures in these dialogs.
Critics of ALM asserted that this over-emphasis on repetition and accuracy ultimately did not help students achieve communicative competence in the target language. Noam Chomsky argued "Language is not a habit structure. Ordinary linguistic behaviour characteristically involves innovation, formation of new sentences and patterns in accordance with rules of great abstractness and intricacy". They looked for new ways to present and organize language instruction, and advocated the notional functional syllabus, and eventually CLT as the most effective way to teach second and foreign languages. However, audio-lingual methodology is still prevalent in many text books and teaching materials. Moreover, advocates of audio-lingual methods point to their success in improving aspects of language that are habit driven, most notably pronunciation.
The Notional Functional Syllabus; A notional-functional syllabus is more a way of organizing a language learning curriculum than a method or an approach to teaching. In a notional-functional syllabus, instruction is organized not in terms of grammatical structure as had often been done with the ALM, but in terms of “notions” and “functions.” In this model, a “notion” is a particular context in which people communicate, and a “function” is a specific purpose for a speaker in a given context. As an example, the “notion” or context shopping requires numerous language functions including asking about prices or features of a product and bargaining. Similarly, the notion party would require numerous functions like introductions and greetings and discussing interests and hobbies. Proponents of the notional-functional syllabus claimed that it addressed the deficiencies they found in the ALM by helping students develop their ability to effectively communicate in a variety of real-life contexts.
Learning by teaching (LdL)
Main article: Learning by teaching;;; Learning by teaching is a widespread method in Germany (Jean-Pol Martin). The students take the teacher's role and teach their peers. An important target is developing websensibility.
Overview of CLT;
As an extension of the notional-functional syllabus, CLT also places great emphasis on helping students use the target language in a variety of contexts and places great emphasis on learning language functions. Unlike the ALM, its primary focus is on helping learners create meaning rather than helping them develop perfectly grammatical structures or acquire native-like pronunciation. This means that successfully learning a foreign language is assessed in terms of how well learners have developed their communicative competence, which can loosely be defined as their ability to apply knowledge of both formal and sociolinguistic aspects of a language with adequate proficiency to communicate.
CLT is usually characterized as a broad approach to teaching, rather than as a teaching method with a clearly defined set of classroom practices. As such, it is most often defined as a list of general principles or features. One of the most recognized of these lists is David Nunan’s (1991) five features of CLT:
1 An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language.
2 The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation.
3 The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also on the Learning Management process.
4 An enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning.
5 An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities outside the classroom.
These five features are claimed by practitioners of CLT to show that they are very interested in the needs and desires of their learners as well as the connection between the language as it is taught in their class and as it used outside the classroom. Under this broad umbrella definition, any teaching practice that helps students develop their communicative competence in an authentic context is deemed an acceptable and beneficial form of instruction. Thus, in the classroom CLT often takes the form of pair and group work requiring negotiation and cooperation between learners, fluency-based activities that encourage learners to develop their confidence, role-plays in which students practice and develop language functions, as well as judicious use of grammar and pronunciation focused activities.
Classroom activities used in CLT; Example Activities
*Role Play
*Interviews
*Information Gap
*Language Exchanges
*Surveys
*Pair Work
*Learning by teaching
However, not all courses that utilize the Communicative Language approach will restrict their activities solely to these. Some courses will have the students take occasional grammar quizzes, or prepare at home using non-communicative drills, for instance.
Critiques of CLT;
One of the most famous attacks on Communicative Language teaching was offered by Michael Swan in the English Language Teaching Journal on 1985[1] Henry Widdowson responded in defense of CLT, also in the ELT Journal (1985 39(3):158-161). More recently other writers (e.g. Bax[2]) have critiqued CLT for paying insufficient attention to the context in which teaching and learning take place, though CLT has also been defended against this charge (e.g. Harmer 2003[3]).
The Communicative Approach often seems to be interpreted as: if the teacher understands the student we have good communication. What can happen though is that a teacher who is from the same region, understands the students when they make errors resulting from first language influence. One problem with this is that native speakers of the target language can have great difficulty understanding them. This observation may call for new thinking on and adaptation of the communicative approach. The adapted communicative approach should be a simulation where the teacher pretends to understand only that what any regular speaker of the target language would, and should react accordingly.[4]
The silent way
The objective of The Silent Way Method of language teaching is for students to work as independent language learners. The teacher speaks very little when using this method. The role of the teacher is to draw the learners' attention to the way that they are going about the act of learning. The teacher facilitates the students' discoveries and helps the students to gain insight into the functioning of the language. In order to use this method some specific materials are required.
• A Sound/Color Wall Chart: made up of different color rectangles in which each color represents a phoneme or sound of the English language.
• Word Wall Charts: words are written using the same color code as the sound/color wall chart suggests. These charts display the structural vocabulary of the language.
• Spelling Charts: These charts are referred to as the Fidel. They show the possible spellings for each phoneme and they also use the same color code as the sound/color wall chart.
• Rods: these are cards containing sounds which correspond to the sound/color wall chart. These rods allow students to create words using phonemes.
A pointer should be used by the teacher to help guide the class as they vocalize the sounds. A pointer can also help to teach which syllable has the stress on it by tapping that syllable harder than the others. This aids in the development of proper pronunciation of words in the target language.
1.1 STRATEGIES USING THE SILET WAY
1. Sound/Color Chart: This is a chart which color codes and groups all the phonemes present in the English language.
* In order to print and use this chart you will need a color printer.
2. Spelling Chart: This chart, also called the Fidel, shows the possible spellings for each phoneme. The colors correspond with the sound/color chart .
* A color printer will be necessary for the full effect in hard copy.
3. Self Correction Gestures: A teacher using this method of language instruction could devise a group of gestures signaling students to rethink their response. For example a teacher might hold his hands together and then bring them apart to signal that a vowel sound should be longer or that the word itself needs to be lengthened. A second signal might be having each finger on your hand representing a word in a sentence (first, second, third, etc.) to indicate the students need to attend to a trouble spot.
The objective of The Silent Way Method of language teaching is for students to work as independent language learners. The teacher speaks very little when using this method. The role of the teacher is to draw the learners' attention to the way that they are going about the act of learning. The teacher facilitates the students' discoveries and helps the students to gain insight into the functioning of the language. In order to use this method some specific materials are required.
• A Sound/Color Wall Chart: made up of different color rectangles in which each color represents a phoneme or sound of the English language.
• Word Wall Charts: words are written using the same color code as the sound/color wall chart suggests. These charts display the structural vocabulary of the language.
• Spelling Charts: These charts are referred to as the Fidel. They show the possible spellings for each phoneme and they also use the same color code as the sound/color wall chart.
• Rods: these are cards containing sounds which correspond to the sound/color wall chart. These rods allow students to create words using phonemes.
A pointer should be used by the teacher to help guide the class as they vocalize the sounds. A pointer can also help to teach which syllable has the stress on it by tapping that syllable harder than the others. This aids in the development of proper pronunciation of words in the target language.
1.1 STRATEGIES USING THE SILET WAY
1. Sound/Color Chart: This is a chart which color codes and groups all the phonemes present in the English language.
* In order to print and use this chart you will need a color printer.
2. Spelling Chart: This chart, also called the Fidel, shows the possible spellings for each phoneme. The colors correspond with the sound/color chart .
* A color printer will be necessary for the full effect in hard copy.
3. Self Correction Gestures: A teacher using this method of language instruction could devise a group of gestures signaling students to rethink their response. For example a teacher might hold his hands together and then bring them apart to signal that a vowel sound should be longer or that the word itself needs to be lengthened. A second signal might be having each finger on your hand representing a word in a sentence (first, second, third, etc.) to indicate the students need to attend to a trouble spot.
Suggestopedia method
Suggestopedia is one of the teaching methods developed by Bulgarian psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov based on the study of Suggestology. The method has been used in different fields of studies but mostly in the field of foreign language learning. Lozanov claimed that by using this method one can teach languages approximately three to five times as quickly as conventional methods.
The theory applied positive suggestion in teaching when it was developed in the 1970s. However, as improved, it has focused more on “desuggestive learning” and now is often called “desuggestopedia.” [1] Suggestopedia is the latest of the six major foreign-language teaching methods known to language teaching experts (the oldest being the grammar translation method.) The name of Suggestopedia is from the words “suggestion” and “pedagogy.”
Recent development:
Suggestopedia is one of the few methodologies working with relaxation. The Michel Thomas Method is the other major user. Mainly based on the discovery of the mirror neurons Ludger Schiffler (2003) has developed the interhemispheric foreign language learning, using gestures and the mental visualization of the gestures during the relaxation period
Purpose and Theory:
The intended purpose of Suggestopedia was to enhance learning by lowering the affective filter of learners.[2] Lozanov claims in his website, Suggestology and Suggestopedy[1], that “suggestopedia is a system for liberation,” the liberation from the “preliminary negative concept regarding the difficulties in the process of learning” that is established throughout their life in the society. Desuggestopedia focuses more on liberation as Lozanov describes “desuggestive learning” as “free, without a mildest pressure, liberation of previously suggested programs to restrict intelligence and spontaneous acquisition of knowledge, skills and habits.” The method implements this by working not only on the conscious level of human mind but also on the subconscious level, the mind’s reserves. Since it works on the reserves in human mind and brain, which are said to have unlimited capacities, one can teach more than other method can teach in the same amount of time.
In Practice:
Physical surroundings and atmosphere in classroom are the vital factors to make sure that "the students feel comfortable and confident"[2] , and various techniques, including art and music, are used by the trained teachers. The lesson of Suggestopedia consisted of three phases at first: deciphering, concert session (memorization séance), and elaboration. [1] [3]
Deciphering: The teacher introduces the grammar and lexis of the content.
Concert session (active and passive): In the active session, the teacher reads the text at a normal speed, sometimes intoning some words, and the students follow. In the passive session, the students relax and listen to the teacher reading the text calmly. Music (“Pre-Classical”) is played background.
Elaboration: The students finish off what they have learned with dramas, songs, and games.
Then it has developed into four phases as lots of experiments were done: introduction, concert session, elaboration, and production. [1] [3]
Introduction: The teacher teaches the material in “a playful manner” instead of analyzing lexis and grammar of the text in a directive manner.
Concert session (active and passive): In the active session, the teacher reads with intoning as selected music is played. Occasionally, the students read the text together with the teacher, and listen only to the music as the teacher pauses in particular moments. The passive session is done more calmly.
Elaboration: The students sing classical songs and play games while “the teacher acts more like a consultant[1]
Production: The students spontaneously speak and interact in the target language without interruption or correction.
Teachers :
Teachers should not act directive although this method is teacher-controlled but not students- controlled. For example, they should act as a real partner to the students, participating in the activities such as games and songs “naturally” and “genuinely.” [1] In the concert session, they should fully include classical art into their behaviors. Although there are many techniques that the teachers use, the factors such as “communication in the spirit of love, respect for man as a human being, the specific humanitarian way of applying there ‘techniques’” etc. are crucial. [3] The teachers need not only to know the techniques and theoretical information but also to understand the theory and to acquire the practical methodology completely because if they implement those techniques without complete understandings and acquisition, they could not provide learners successful results, or even could give a negative impact on their learning. Therefore the teacher has to be trained in the course that is taught by the certified trainers.
Here are the most important factors for teachers to acquire, described by Lozanov.[1]
1. Covering a huge bulk of learning material.
2. Structuring the material in the suggestopaedic way; global-partial – partial-global, and global in the part – part in the global, related to the golden proportion.
3. As a professional, on one hand, and a personality, on the other hand, the teacher should be highly prestigious, reliable and credible.
4. The teacher should have, not play, a hundred percent of expectancy in positive results (because the teacher is already experienced even from the time of teacher training course). 5. The teacher should love his/her students (of course, not sentimentally but as human beings) and teach them with personal participation through games, songs, a classical type of arts and pleasure.
Method for Children (Preventive Suggestopedia):
The method for Adults includes long sessions without movement, [1] and materials that are appropriate for adults. Children, however, get impacts from “the social suggestive norms” differently and their brains are more delicate than those of adults. Therefore, another method with different materials should be applied to children, which better matches their characteristics. Lessons for children are more incidental and short, preventing the children from the negative pedagogical suggestions of Society. It is important to tell the parents about the method and their roles because they could influence children both negatively and positively, depending on how they support the kids.
Side Effects: Lozanov claims that the effect of the method is not only in language learning. There seem to be confirmed favorable side effects on health, the social and psychological relations, and the subsequent success in other subjects. [1]
Criticism: Because Suggestopedia works on subconsciousness, it is often said that[citation needed] the method includes hypnosis or other techniques which gave very negative and deep impacts on human beings. However, Lozanov strongly denies this and claims that the method does not use techniques such as; hypnosis, NLP, breathing exercises, use of the alpha waves of the brain, special diets, and so on. [3]
Suggestopedia is one of the teaching methods developed by Bulgarian psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov based on the study of Suggestology. The method has been used in different fields of studies but mostly in the field of foreign language learning. Lozanov claimed that by using this method one can teach languages approximately three to five times as quickly as conventional methods.
The theory applied positive suggestion in teaching when it was developed in the 1970s. However, as improved, it has focused more on “desuggestive learning” and now is often called “desuggestopedia.” [1] Suggestopedia is the latest of the six major foreign-language teaching methods known to language teaching experts (the oldest being the grammar translation method.) The name of Suggestopedia is from the words “suggestion” and “pedagogy.”
Recent development:
Suggestopedia is one of the few methodologies working with relaxation. The Michel Thomas Method is the other major user. Mainly based on the discovery of the mirror neurons Ludger Schiffler (2003) has developed the interhemispheric foreign language learning, using gestures and the mental visualization of the gestures during the relaxation period
Purpose and Theory:
The intended purpose of Suggestopedia was to enhance learning by lowering the affective filter of learners.[2] Lozanov claims in his website, Suggestology and Suggestopedy[1], that “suggestopedia is a system for liberation,” the liberation from the “preliminary negative concept regarding the difficulties in the process of learning” that is established throughout their life in the society. Desuggestopedia focuses more on liberation as Lozanov describes “desuggestive learning” as “free, without a mildest pressure, liberation of previously suggested programs to restrict intelligence and spontaneous acquisition of knowledge, skills and habits.” The method implements this by working not only on the conscious level of human mind but also on the subconscious level, the mind’s reserves. Since it works on the reserves in human mind and brain, which are said to have unlimited capacities, one can teach more than other method can teach in the same amount of time.
In Practice:
Physical surroundings and atmosphere in classroom are the vital factors to make sure that "the students feel comfortable and confident"[2] , and various techniques, including art and music, are used by the trained teachers. The lesson of Suggestopedia consisted of three phases at first: deciphering, concert session (memorization séance), and elaboration. [1] [3]
Deciphering: The teacher introduces the grammar and lexis of the content.
Concert session (active and passive): In the active session, the teacher reads the text at a normal speed, sometimes intoning some words, and the students follow. In the passive session, the students relax and listen to the teacher reading the text calmly. Music (“Pre-Classical”) is played background.
Elaboration: The students finish off what they have learned with dramas, songs, and games.
Then it has developed into four phases as lots of experiments were done: introduction, concert session, elaboration, and production. [1] [3]
Introduction: The teacher teaches the material in “a playful manner” instead of analyzing lexis and grammar of the text in a directive manner.
Concert session (active and passive): In the active session, the teacher reads with intoning as selected music is played. Occasionally, the students read the text together with the teacher, and listen only to the music as the teacher pauses in particular moments. The passive session is done more calmly.
Elaboration: The students sing classical songs and play games while “the teacher acts more like a consultant[1]
Production: The students spontaneously speak and interact in the target language without interruption or correction.
Teachers :
Teachers should not act directive although this method is teacher-controlled but not students- controlled. For example, they should act as a real partner to the students, participating in the activities such as games and songs “naturally” and “genuinely.” [1] In the concert session, they should fully include classical art into their behaviors. Although there are many techniques that the teachers use, the factors such as “communication in the spirit of love, respect for man as a human being, the specific humanitarian way of applying there ‘techniques’” etc. are crucial. [3] The teachers need not only to know the techniques and theoretical information but also to understand the theory and to acquire the practical methodology completely because if they implement those techniques without complete understandings and acquisition, they could not provide learners successful results, or even could give a negative impact on their learning. Therefore the teacher has to be trained in the course that is taught by the certified trainers.
Here are the most important factors for teachers to acquire, described by Lozanov.[1]
1. Covering a huge bulk of learning material.
2. Structuring the material in the suggestopaedic way; global-partial – partial-global, and global in the part – part in the global, related to the golden proportion.
3. As a professional, on one hand, and a personality, on the other hand, the teacher should be highly prestigious, reliable and credible.
4. The teacher should have, not play, a hundred percent of expectancy in positive results (because the teacher is already experienced even from the time of teacher training course). 5. The teacher should love his/her students (of course, not sentimentally but as human beings) and teach them with personal participation through games, songs, a classical type of arts and pleasure.
Method for Children (Preventive Suggestopedia):
The method for Adults includes long sessions without movement, [1] and materials that are appropriate for adults. Children, however, get impacts from “the social suggestive norms” differently and their brains are more delicate than those of adults. Therefore, another method with different materials should be applied to children, which better matches their characteristics. Lessons for children are more incidental and short, preventing the children from the negative pedagogical suggestions of Society. It is important to tell the parents about the method and their roles because they could influence children both negatively and positively, depending on how they support the kids.
Side Effects: Lozanov claims that the effect of the method is not only in language learning. There seem to be confirmed favorable side effects on health, the social and psychological relations, and the subsequent success in other subjects. [1]
Criticism: Because Suggestopedia works on subconsciousness, it is often said that[citation needed] the method includes hypnosis or other techniques which gave very negative and deep impacts on human beings. However, Lozanov strongly denies this and claims that the method does not use techniques such as; hypnosis, NLP, breathing exercises, use of the alpha waves of the brain, special diets, and so on. [3]
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