1)GRMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD

1 Introduction to the Grammar Translation Method

Latin and Ancient Greek are known as "dead" languages, based on the fact that people no longer speak them for the purpose of interactive communication. Yet they are still acknowledged as important languages to learn (especially Latin) for the purpose of gaining access to classical literature, and up until fairly recently, for the kinds of grammar training that led to the mental dexterity considered so important in any higher education study stream.
Latin has been studied for centuries, with the prime objectives of learning how to read classical Latin texts, understanding the fundamentals of grammar and translation, and gaining insights into some important foreign influences Latin has had on the development of other European languages. The method used to teach it overwhelmingly bore those objectives in mind, and came to be known (appropriately!) as the Classical Method. It is now more commonly known in Foreign Language Teaching circles as the Grammar Translation Method.
It is hard to decide which is more surprising - the fact that this method has survived right up until today (alongside a host of more modern and more "enlightened" methods), or the fact that what was essentially a method developed for the study of "dead" languages involving little or no spoken communication or listening comprehension is still used for the study of languages that are very much alive and require competence not only in terms of reading, writing and structure, but also speaking, listening and interactive communication. How has such an archaic method, "remembered with distaste by thousands of school learners" (Richards and Rodgers, 1986:4) perservered?
It is worth looking at the objectives, features and typical techniques commonly associated with the Grammar Translation Method, in order to both understand how it works and why it has shown such tenacity as an acceptable (even recommended or respected) language teaching philosophy in many countries and institutions around the world.

1.2 The Grammar Translation Method - Objectives

Most teachers who employ the Grammar Translation Method to teach English would probably tell you that (for their students at least) the most fundamental reason for learning the language is to give learners access to English literature, develop their minds "mentally" through foreign language learning, and to build in them the kinds of grammar, reading, vocabulary and translation skills necessary to pass any one of a variety of mandatory written tests required at high school or tertiary level. Some teachers who use the method might also tell you that it is the most effective way to prepare students for "global communication" by beginning with the key skills of reading and grammar. Others may even go so far as to admit that they think it is the "least stressful" for students, because almost all the teaching occurs in L1 and students are rarely called upon to speak the language in any communicative fashion. More conservative teachers from more conservative countries are even likely to be put out by anyone merely questioning the method, and a typical response could be "because that's the way it's always been done - it's the way I learned and look, now I'm a professor". The point being, the method is institutionalized and considered fundamental. Such teachers are probably even unware that the method has a name and can be compared alongside other methods.

1.3 The Grammar Translation Method - Key Features

According to Prator and Celce-Murcia (1979:3), the key features of the Grammar Translation Method are as follows:

(1) Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language.
(2) Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.
(3) Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.
(4) Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words.
(5) Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.
(6) Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in in grammatical analysis.
(7) Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue.
(8) Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.

4 The Grammar Translation Method - Typical Techniques

Diane Larsen-Freeman, in her book Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (2000:19-21) provides expanded descriptions of some common/typical techniques closely associated with the Grammar Translation Method. The listing here is in summary form only.

(1) Translation of a Literary Passage (Translating target language to native language)
(2) Reading Comprehension Questions (Finding information in a passage, making inferences and relating to personal experience)
(3) Antonyms/Synonyms (Finding antonyms and synonyms for words or sets of words)
(4) Cognates (Learning spelling/sound patterns that correspond between L1 and the target language)
(5) Deductive Application of Rule (Understanding grammar rules and their exceptions, then applying them to new examples)
(6) Fill-in-the-blanks (Filling in gaps in sentences with new words or items of a particular grammar type)
(7) Memorization (Memorizing vocabulary lists, grammatical rules and grammatical paradigms) (8) Use Words in Sentences (Students create sentences to illustrate they know the meaning and use of new words)
(9) Composition (Students write about a topic using the target language)

5 Comments

Many people who have undertaken foreign language learning at high schools or universities even in the past 10 years or so may remember many of the teaching techniques listed above for the Grammar Translation Method. They may also recall that the language learning experience was uninspiring, rather boring, or even left them with a sense of frustration when they traveled to countries where the language was used only to find they couldn't understand what people were saying and struggled mightily to express themselves at the most basic level. Very few modern language teaching experts would be quick to say that this is an effective language teaching method, and fewer would dare to try and assert that it results in any kind of communicative competence. As Richards and Rodgers (1986:5) state, "It is a method for which there is no theory. There is no literature that offers a rationale or justification for it that attempts to relate it to issues in linguistics, psychology, or educational theory." And yet the Grammar Translation Method is still common in many countries - even popular. Brown attempts to explain why the method is still employed by pointing out: "It requires few specialized skills on the part of teachers. Tests of grammar rules and of translations are easy to construct and can be objectively scored. Many standardized tests of foreign languages still do not attempt to tap into communicative abilities, so students have little motivation to go beyond grammar analogies, translations, and rote exercises."

6 Criticism;

The method by definition has a very limited scope of objectives. Because speaking or any kind of spontaneous creative output was missing from the curriculum, students would often fail at speaking or even letter writing in the target language. A noteworthy quote describing the effect of this method comes from Bahlsen, who was a student of Plötz, a major proponent of this method in the 19th century. In commenting about writing letters or speaking he said he would be overcome with "a veritable forest of paragraphs, and an impenetrable thicket of grammatical rules." Later, theorists such as Vietor, Passy, Berlitz, and Jespersen began to talk about what a new kind of foreign language instruction needed, shedding light on what the grammar translation was missing. They supported teaching the language, not about the language, and teaching in the target language, emphasizing speech as well as text. Through grammar translation, students lacked an active role in the classroom, often correcting their own work and strictly following the textbook.
7 Conclusion;

The grammar translation method stayed in schools until the 1960s, when a complete foreign language pedagogy evaluation was taking place. In the meantime, teachers experimented with approaches like the direct method in post-war and Depression era classrooms, but without much structure

The Direct Method

The Direct Method is the learning of language in a relevant setting. This method has one basic rule and that is that no translation is allowed. The meaning of the name "Direct Method" comes from the fact that meaning is to be conveyed directly into the second language through demonstration and visual aids.

The main principles of the Direct Method are as follows:

*German is not used in the classroom.
*The learner is actively involved in using the language in realistic everyday situations.
*Students are encouraged to think in the target language.
*Speaking is taught first before reading or writing.
*Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught.
*Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures.
*Abstract vocabulary is taught by association of ideas.
*This method states that the printed word should be kept away from the second language learner for as long as possible.

1 Strategies using the Direct Method

1. Q & A: The teacher asks questions of any nature and the students answer. In preparation for this activity the teacher models, extensively, the use of complete answers to questions. Once doing this activity the teacher expects full sentences as answers to each question. Students can also be given the opportunity to ask the questions.

Objective: Experiment with words and sentence patterns to create interest and variety.

2. Dictation: The teacher chooses a grade appropriate passage from a book and reads the text aloud three times. The first time the passage is read the students only listen. The second time the passage is read it is read phrase by phrase, with the teacher pausing long enough for students to write down what they have heard. The third time the text is read, it is read at normal speed and the students check their work.

Objective: Listen attentively, courteously, and purposefully to a range of texts from a variety of cultural traditions for pleasure and information.

3. Reading Aloud: Students take turns reading sections of a passage, play, or dialog out loud. At the end of each student's turn the teacher uses gestures, pictures, examples, or role play to help the students make meaning of the text.

Objective: Orally and silently read a range of contemporary and classical grade appropriate texts for enjoyment and information.

4. Getting Students to Self-Correct: The teacher when provided with the opportunity should have the students self-correct by offering them a choice between what they said and the proper pronunciation. For example if the student says, "I have cree apples," the teacher should say, "Do you have cree apples or three apples?"

Objective: Reflect on speaking behaviors and strategies.

5. Map Drawing: Students are provided with a blank map of Canada. The teacher gives specific instructions to the students. Once they are finished, their map will be completely labeled. The teacher takes the same map on an overhead and the students give the teacher instructions on how to label the map.

Objectives: Listen purposefully to determine the main ideas and important details; use language appropriate to audience, purpose, and situation

The Adiolingual Method

This method of Language Learning is also called the Aural-Oral Method. This method is said to result in rapid acquisition of speaking and listening skills. The audiolingual method drills students in the use of grammatical sentence patterns. When this method was developed it was thought that the way to acquire the sentence patterns of the second language was through conditioning or helping learners to respond correctly to stimuli through shaping and reinforcement.

The Audiolingual Method is based on the following principles:

*Speaking and listening competence preceded reading and writing competence.
*Use of German is highly discouraged in the classroom.
*The development of language skills is a matter of habit formulation.
*Students practice particular patterns of language through structured dialogue and drill until response is automatic.
*Structured patterns in language are taught using repetitive drills.
*The emphasis is on having students produce error free utterances.
*This method of language learning supports kinesthetic learning styles.
*Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught. Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures. Abstract vocabulary is taught through association of ideas.
*The printed word must be kept away from the second language learner as long as possible.

.1 Strategies using the Adiolingual Method

1. Dialog Memorization: Students are given a short dialog to memorize then they must use mimicry and applied role playing to present the dialog. Examples of dialogs that could be used are included in the materials section.

Objective: Experiment with language and non-verbal elements (eg. gesture) to achieve an effect for a particular purpose and audience.

2. Backward Build Up: Provide students with the the sentence fragments found in the materials section. Students repeat each part of the sentence starting at the end of the sentence and expanding backwards through the sentence adding each part in sequence.

Objective: Participate in a variety of shared language experiences.

3. Transformation Drill: The teacher provides a question which must be transformed into a statement. An extension of this activity is to have the students make a question out of a statement.

Objective: Select from a range of word choices and use simple sentence patterns to communicate ideas and information.

4. Complete the Dialog: Have the students fill in the blanks in the dialogs provided. The proper English word must be inserted into the text. This activity is much like a cloze activity.

Objective: Make connections between text, prior knowledge, and personal experiences.

5. Dictation: Using any piece of literature at the students' reading level, read the piece aloud several times. Have the students write down what they hear. The idea is to write what they have heard as literally as possible.

Objective: Listen purposefully to determine main ideas and important details.

6. Flashcards: Using flashcards with words that are relevant to them brainstorm other words about the word on the card. A new word could be chosen each day.

Objective: Make connections between text, prior knowledge, and personal experiences.

7. Chain Drill: A chain of conversation forms around the room as the teacher greets or questions a student and that student responds then turns to the next student and greets or asks a question of the second student and the chain continues.

Objective: Participate in shared language experiences.

8. The Alphabet Game: The teacher picks a category, such as the supermarket. Then the first student says, "I am going to the supermarket. I need a few apples." (The first student names something beginning with A.) The second student says, "I am going to the supermarket. I need a few apples and I need a few bananas." The game continues in this manner with each consecutive student adding an item beginning with the next letter after repeating the items named before their own.

Objectives: Participate in shared listening experiences. Share ideas and experiences in large and small groups.

Communicative language teaching approach

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. It is also referred to as “communicative approach to the teaching of foreign languages” or simply the “Communicative Approach”.

Relationship with other methods and approaches

Historically, CLT has been seen as a response to the Audio-Lingual Method (ALM), and as an extension or development of the Notional-Functional Syllabus. Task-based language learning, a more recent refinement of CLT, has gained considerably in popularity.

The Audio-Lingual Method; The Audio-Lingual Method (ALM) arose as a direct result of the need for foreign language proficiency in listening and speaking skills during and after World War II. It is closely tied to behaviorism, and thus made drilling, repetition, and habit-formation central elements of instruction. Proponents of ALM felt that this emphasis on repetition needed a corollary emphasis on accuracy, claiming that continual repetition of errors would lead to the fixed acquisition of incorrect structures and non-standard pronunciation.

In the classroom, lessons were often organized by grammatical structure and presented through short dialogs. Often, students listened repeatedly to recordings of conversations (for example, in the language lab ) and focused on accurately mimicking the pronunciation and grammatical structures in these dialogs.

Critics of ALM asserted that this over-emphasis on repetition and accuracy ultimately did not help students achieve communicative competence in the target language. Noam Chomsky argued "Language is not a habit structure. Ordinary linguistic behaviour characteristically involves innovation, formation of new sentences and patterns in accordance with rules of great abstractness and intricacy". They looked for new ways to present and organize language instruction, and advocated the notional functional syllabus, and eventually CLT as the most effective way to teach second and foreign languages. However, audio-lingual methodology is still prevalent in many text books and teaching materials. Moreover, advocates of audio-lingual methods point to their success in improving aspects of language that are habit driven, most notably pronunciation.

The Notional Functional Syllabus; A notional-functional syllabus is more a way of organizing a language learning curriculum than a method or an approach to teaching. In a notional-functional syllabus, instruction is organized not in terms of grammatical structure as had often been done with the ALM, but in terms of “notions” and “functions.” In this model, a “notion” is a particular context in which people communicate, and a “function” is a specific purpose for a speaker in a given context. As an example, the “notion” or context shopping requires numerous language functions including asking about prices or features of a product and bargaining. Similarly, the notion party would require numerous functions like introductions and greetings and discussing interests and hobbies. Proponents of the notional-functional syllabus claimed that it addressed the deficiencies they found in the ALM by helping students develop their ability to effectively communicate in a variety of real-life contexts.

Learning by teaching (LdL)
Main article: Learning by teaching;;; Learning by teaching is a widespread method in Germany (Jean-Pol Martin). The students take the teacher's role and teach their peers. An important target is developing websensibility.

Overview of CLT;

As an extension of the notional-functional syllabus, CLT also places great emphasis on helping students use the target language in a variety of contexts and places great emphasis on learning language functions. Unlike the ALM, its primary focus is on helping learners create meaning rather than helping them develop perfectly grammatical structures or acquire native-like pronunciation. This means that successfully learning a foreign language is assessed in terms of how well learners have developed their communicative competence, which can loosely be defined as their ability to apply knowledge of both formal and sociolinguistic aspects of a language with adequate proficiency to communicate.

CLT is usually characterized as a broad approach to teaching, rather than as a teaching method with a clearly defined set of classroom practices. As such, it is most often defined as a list of general principles or features. One of the most recognized of these lists is David Nunan’s (1991) five features of CLT:

1 An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language.

2 The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation.

3 The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also on the Learning Management process.

4 An enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning.

5 An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities outside the classroom.

These five features are claimed by practitioners of CLT to show that they are very interested in the needs and desires of their learners as well as the connection between the language as it is taught in their class and as it used outside the classroom. Under this broad umbrella definition, any teaching practice that helps students develop their communicative competence in an authentic context is deemed an acceptable and beneficial form of instruction. Thus, in the classroom CLT often takes the form of pair and group work requiring negotiation and cooperation between learners, fluency-based activities that encourage learners to develop their confidence, role-plays in which students practice and develop language functions, as well as judicious use of grammar and pronunciation focused activities.
Classroom activities used in CLT; Example Activities
*Role Play
*Interviews
*Information Gap
*Language Exchanges
*Surveys
*Pair Work
*Learning by teaching
However, not all courses that utilize the Communicative Language approach will restrict their activities solely to these. Some courses will have the students take occasional grammar quizzes, or prepare at home using non-communicative drills, for instance.

Critiques of CLT;
One of the most famous attacks on Communicative Language teaching was offered by Michael Swan in the English Language Teaching Journal on 1985[1] Henry Widdowson responded in defense of CLT, also in the ELT Journal (1985 39(3):158-161). More recently other writers (e.g. Bax[2]) have critiqued CLT for paying insufficient attention to the context in which teaching and learning take place, though CLT has also been defended against this charge (e.g. Harmer 2003[3]).
The Communicative Approach often seems to be interpreted as: if the teacher understands the student we have good communication. What can happen though is that a teacher who is from the same region, understands the students when they make errors resulting from first language influence. One problem with this is that native speakers of the target language can have great difficulty understanding them. This observation may call for new thinking on and adaptation of the communicative approach. The adapted communicative approach should be a simulation where the teacher pretends to understand only that what any regular speaker of the target language would, and should react accordingly.[4]

The silent way

The objective of The Silent Way Method of language teaching is for students to work as independent language learners. The teacher speaks very little when using this method. The role of the teacher is to draw the learners' attention to the way that they are going about the act of learning. The teacher facilitates the students' discoveries and helps the students to gain insight into the functioning of the language. In order to use this method some specific materials are required.
• A Sound/Color Wall Chart: made up of different color rectangles in which each color represents a phoneme or sound of the English language.

• Word Wall Charts: words are written using the same color code as the sound/color wall chart suggests. These charts display the structural vocabulary of the language.

• Spelling Charts: These charts are referred to as the Fidel. They show the possible spellings for each phoneme and they also use the same color code as the sound/color wall chart.

• Rods: these are cards containing sounds which correspond to the sound/color wall chart. These rods allow students to create words using phonemes.
A pointer should be used by the teacher to help guide the class as they vocalize the sounds. A pointer can also help to teach which syllable has the stress on it by tapping that syllable harder than the others. This aids in the development of proper pronunciation of words in the target language.

1.1 STRATEGIES USING THE SILET WAY

1. Sound/Color Chart: This is a chart which color codes and groups all the phonemes present in the English language.
* In order to print and use this chart you will need a color printer.

2. Spelling Chart: This chart, also called the Fidel, shows the possible spellings for each phoneme. The colors correspond with the sound/color chart .
* A color printer will be necessary for the full effect in hard copy.

3. Self Correction Gestures: A teacher using this method of language instruction could devise a group of gestures signaling students to rethink their response. For example a teacher might hold his hands together and then bring them apart to signal that a vowel sound should be longer or that the word itself needs to be lengthened. A second signal might be having each finger on your hand representing a word in a sentence (first, second, third, etc.) to indicate the students need to attend to a trouble spot.

Suggestopedia method

Suggestopedia is one of the teaching methods developed by Bulgarian psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov based on the study of Suggestology. The method has been used in different fields of studies but mostly in the field of foreign language learning. Lozanov claimed that by using this method one can teach languages approximately three to five times as quickly as conventional methods.

The theory applied positive suggestion in teaching when it was developed in the 1970s. However, as improved, it has focused more on “desuggestive learning” and now is often called “desuggestopedia.” [1] Suggestopedia is the latest of the six major foreign-language teaching methods known to language teaching experts (the oldest being the grammar translation method.) The name of Suggestopedia is from the words “suggestion” and “pedagogy.”

Recent development:

Suggestopedia is one of the few methodologies working with relaxation. The Michel Thomas Method is the other major user. Mainly based on the discovery of the mirror neurons Ludger Schiffler (2003) has developed the interhemispheric foreign language learning, using gestures and the mental visualization of the gestures during the relaxation period

Purpose and Theory:

The intended purpose of Suggestopedia was to enhance learning by lowering the affective filter of learners.[2] Lozanov claims in his website, Suggestology and Suggestopedy[1], that “suggestopedia is a system for liberation,” the liberation from the “preliminary negative concept regarding the difficulties in the process of learning” that is established throughout their life in the society. Desuggestopedia focuses more on liberation as Lozanov describes “desuggestive learning” as “free, without a mildest pressure, liberation of previously suggested programs to restrict intelligence and spontaneous acquisition of knowledge, skills and habits.” The method implements this by working not only on the conscious level of human mind but also on the subconscious level, the mind’s reserves. Since it works on the reserves in human mind and brain, which are said to have unlimited capacities, one can teach more than other method can teach in the same amount of time.

In Practice:

Physical surroundings and atmosphere in classroom are the vital factors to make sure that "the students feel comfortable and confident"[2] , and various techniques, including art and music, are used by the trained teachers. The lesson of Suggestopedia consisted of three phases at first: deciphering, concert session (memorization séance), and elaboration. [1] [3]

Deciphering: The teacher introduces the grammar and lexis of the content.

Concert session (active and passive): In the active session, the teacher reads the text at a normal speed, sometimes intoning some words, and the students follow. In the passive session, the students relax and listen to the teacher reading the text calmly. Music (“Pre-Classical”) is played background.

Elaboration: The students finish off what they have learned with dramas, songs, and games.
Then it has developed into four phases as lots of experiments were done: introduction, concert session, elaboration, and production. [1] [3]

Introduction: The teacher teaches the material in “a playful manner” instead of analyzing lexis and grammar of the text in a directive manner.

Concert session (active and passive): In the active session, the teacher reads with intoning as selected music is played. Occasionally, the students read the text together with the teacher, and listen only to the music as the teacher pauses in particular moments. The passive session is done more calmly.

Elaboration: The students sing classical songs and play games while “the teacher acts more like a consultant[1]

Production: The students spontaneously speak and interact in the target language without interruption or correction.

Teachers :

Teachers should not act directive although this method is teacher-controlled but not students- controlled. For example, they should act as a real partner to the students, participating in the activities such as games and songs “naturally” and “genuinely.” [1] In the concert session, they should fully include classical art into their behaviors. Although there are many techniques that the teachers use, the factors such as “communication in the spirit of love, respect for man as a human being, the specific humanitarian way of applying there ‘techniques’” etc. are crucial. [3] The teachers need not only to know the techniques and theoretical information but also to understand the theory and to acquire the practical methodology completely because if they implement those techniques without complete understandings and acquisition, they could not provide learners successful results, or even could give a negative impact on their learning. Therefore the teacher has to be trained in the course that is taught by the certified trainers.
Here are the most important factors for teachers to acquire, described by Lozanov.[1]

1. Covering a huge bulk of learning material.

2. Structuring the material in the suggestopaedic way; global-partial – partial-global, and global in the part – part in the global, related to the golden proportion.

3. As a professional, on one hand, and a personality, on the other hand, the teacher should be highly prestigious, reliable and credible.

4. The teacher should have, not play, a hundred percent of expectancy in positive results (because the teacher is already experienced even from the time of teacher training course). 5. The teacher should love his/her students (of course, not sentimentally but as human beings) and teach them with personal participation through games, songs, a classical type of arts and pleasure.

Method for Children (Preventive Suggestopedia):

The method for Adults includes long sessions without movement, [1] and materials that are appropriate for adults. Children, however, get impacts from “the social suggestive norms” differently and their brains are more delicate than those of adults. Therefore, another method with different materials should be applied to children, which better matches their characteristics. Lessons for children are more incidental and short, preventing the children from the negative pedagogical suggestions of Society. It is important to tell the parents about the method and their roles because they could influence children both negatively and positively, depending on how they support the kids.

Side Effects: Lozanov claims that the effect of the method is not only in language learning. There seem to be confirmed favorable side effects on health, the social and psychological relations, and the subsequent success in other subjects. [1]

Criticism: Because Suggestopedia works on subconsciousness, it is often said that[citation needed] the method includes hypnosis or other techniques which gave very negative and deep impacts on human beings. However, Lozanov strongly denies this and claims that the method does not use techniques such as; hypnosis, NLP, breathing exercises, use of the alpha waves of the brain, special diets, and so on. [3]

HARMER'S six roles of a teacher


1 Controller

Exemplify the teacher-fronted classroom. Transmission of knowledge from the
teacher to the pupils. Can inspire if the teacher has knowledge and charisma, if not ... Possible
disadvantages: a) Denies pupils’ access to their own experimental learning. b) Cuts down on
pupils’ opportunities to speak, because the class is acting as a whole group. c) Can result in
lack of variety in activities. Advantage when a) announcements are made, b) order has to be
restored, c) explanations are given, d) in a question-answer session.
Do you think many teachers feel that this is the role they are used to and are most comfortable with?
2 Organiser

Organising pupils to do various activities. Give information, how to do the
activity, put in pairs or groups, close things down when time to stop. Important to get full
advantage of an activity and to avoid chaos. Get pupils involved and ready. Get language
right and present instructions in a logical order. E.g. get a pupil up front to demonstrate the
activity with you. Tell them how much time they have got and exactly when they should start.
When finished, organise some kind of feedback. Summing up the role of organiser:
engage – instruct (demonstrate) – initiate – organise feedback.

3 Assessor

What pupils expect from their teachers: Indication of whether or not they are
getting their English right. Feedback and correction and grading pupils in various ways.
Pupils should know what we are looking for and what success looks like so they can measure
themselves against this. (Refer to learning aims and can dos in K2006.) Important: The feeling of fairness
. Also be sensitive to the pupil’s possible reaction. Give feedback with sensitivity and support.

4 Prompter

If pupils lose the thread of what is going on or they are lost for words, we may nudge them forward in a discreet and supportive way. We want to help, but not to take over. Balance between taking the initiative away from the pupil and – if too careful – not giving the right amount of encouragement.

5 Participant

Traditional picture: Teacher standing back from the activity, letting learners get on with it. Later giving feedback and/or correcting mistakes. Sometimes we should join in –
not as a teacher, but as a participant in our own right. Enliven things from the inside instead of
organise from the outside. Danger: The teacher can easily dominate the proceedings.
Something it takes skill and sensitivity to avoid!

6 Resource

We should be helpful and available, but resist the urge to spoon-feed our pupils so they become over-reliant on us. Offer guidance to where they can go and look for the information. Help them to become more independent in their learning generally. It is okay to say, “I don’t know, but I’ll tell you tomorrow.”
*Tutor : Working with individuals or small groups, combining the roles of prompter and resource.
More personal contact gives the learners a real chance to feel supported and helped. Positive for the general
class atmosphere! NB: Important to see and give guidance to as many groups/individuals as possible.
* Observer ; Observe what the pupils do – especially in oral communicative activities – to be able to give them useful feedback. Be careful not to be too intrusive! When taking notes on pupils’ performance, have columns not only for what they get wrong, but also what they do right. Observing for success gives us a different feel for how well they are doing. We need to be able to work and observe simultaneously, listening, watching, and absorbing. Not only in order to give feedback, but also to judge the success of the different materials
and activities we take into the lessons, so we can make necessary changes in the future.
This represents an important area of teacher development!
The teacher as teaching aid

Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition

Description of Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition<

Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses:

the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis,
the Monitor hypothesis,
the Natural Order hypothesis,
the Input hypothesis,

and th The Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most fundamental of all the hypotheses in Krashen's theory and the most widely known among linguists and language practitioners.
According to Krashen there are two independent systems of second language performance: 'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'. The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act.
The 'learned system' or 'learning' is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge 'about' the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules. According to Krashen 'learning' is less important than 'acquisition'. (Veja o texto ao lado e também outra página em português sobre Acquisition/Learning).

The Monitor hypothesis

explains the relationship between acquisition and learning and defines the influence of the latter on the former. The monitoring function is the practical result of the learned grammar. According to Krashen, the acquisition system is the utterance initiator, while the learning system performs the role of the 'monitor' or the 'editor'. The 'monitor' acts in a planning, editing and correcting function when three specific conditions are met: that is, the second language learner has sufficient time at his/her disposal, he/she focuses on form or thinks about correctness, and he/she knows the rule.
It appears that the role of conscious learning is somewhat limited in second language performance. According to Krashen, the role of the monitor is - or should be - minor, being used only to correct deviations from 'normal' speech and to give speech a more 'polished' appearance.
*Krashen also suggests that there is individual variation among language learners with regard to 'monitor' use. He distinguishes those learners that use the 'monitor' all the time (over-users); those learners who have not learned or who prefer not to use their conscious knowledge (under-users); and those learners that use the 'monitor' appropriately (optimal users). An evaluation of the person's psychological profile can help to determine to what group they belong. Usually extroverts are under-users, while introverts and perfectionists are over-users. Lack of self-confidence is frequently related to the over-use of the 'monitor'e Affective Filter hypothesis.
The Natural Order hypothesis

is based on research findings (Dulay & Burt, 1974; Fathman, 1975; Makino, 1980 cited in Krashen, 1987) which suggested that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a 'natural order' which is predictable. For a given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late. This order seemed to be independent of the learners' age, L1 background, conditions of exposure, and although the agreement between individual acquirers was not always 100% in the studies, there were statistically significant similarities that reinforced the existence of a Natural Order of language acquisition. Krashen however points out that the implication of the natural order hypothesis is not that a language program syllabus should be based on the order found in the studies. In fact, he rejects grammatical sequencing when the goal is language acquisition.
TtheInput hypothesis

is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second language. In other words, this hypothesis is Krashen's explanation of how second language acquisition takes place. So, the Input hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not 'learning'. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level 'i + 1'. Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' input that is appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence.
Finally, the fifth hypothesis, the Affective Filter hypothesis, embodies Krashen's view that a number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These variables include: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to 'raise' the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place.

The Role of Grammar in Krashen's View

According to Krashen, the study of the structure of the language can have general educational advantages and values that high schools and colleges may want to include in their language programs. It should be clear, however, that examining irregularity, formulating rules and teaching complex facts about the target language is not language teaching, but rather is "language appreciation" or linguistics.
The only instance in which the teaching of grammar can result in language acquisition (and proficiency) is when the students are interested in the subject and the target language is used as a medium of instruction. Very often, when this occurs, both teachers and students are convinced that the study of formal grammar is essential for second language acquisition, and the teacher is skillful enough to present explanations in the target language so that the students understand. In other words, the teacher talk meets the requirements for comprehensible input and perhaps with the students' participation the classroom becomes an environment suitable for acquisition. Also, the filter is low in regard to the language of explanation, as the students' conscious efforts are usually on the subject matter, on what is being talked about, and not the medium.
This is a subtle point. In effect, both teachers and students are deceiving themselves. They believe that it is the subject matter itself, the study of grammar, that is responsible for the students' progress, but in reality their progress is coming from the medium and not the message. Any subject matter that held their interest would do just as well.

The Natural approach
This approach is based on the tenets of several theories, the most prominent one being The Monitor Model developed by Stephen Krasher. The principles of this model are based on several hypotheses which are outlined below:

Learning and Acquisition Hypothesis; The learner has two ways of attaining the second language. Subconscious Acquisition and Conscious Learning. In other words the learner must learn to speak and think in the second language.

The Monitor Hypothesis ;The subconscious knowledge of the second language allows the learner to check and correct language output forming a kind of conscious editing process.

The Natural Order Hypothesis; The acquisition of languages takes place in a predictable order. There are certain "universal procedures of language development." Each person has an "internal natural syllabus of acquisition" which results in comparable errors at comparable moments regardless of which language is being learned. In other words students who have difficulty with the acquisition of German will likely have difficulty with the acquisition of English.
The Input Hypothesis; Language must be learned in a "scaffolded" manner. The input must be comprehensible, meaningful, and just beyond the learners' current understanding and competence. The learners extend their knowledge of language by building on what they already know. A good progression of topics and situations for the second language learner is as follows
topics
situation
1 greeting
1. Names
2. Description of themselves an others
3. Family
4. Numbers
5. Clothing
6. Colors
7. Objects in the classroom

2. Classroom Commands
STRAGEIES USING THE NATURAL APPRAOCH
PRE-SPEECH ACTIVITIES

1. "TEACHER" SAYS: The teacher gives commands and students must act out what she says (eg. stand up, turn around, raise your right hand, etc.). This activity can also be used to teach parts of the body. This activity is an example of a method of language learning called Total Physical Response. Objective: Learn about and practice the skills and strategies of effective listeners.
2. FIND THE PICTURE: Cut pictures of various items from magazines. These pictures may or may not be of vocabulary words that the students are familiar with. Pass out one picture to each student. The activity then, is to have each student say the name of the student and what picture they have (eg. Tom has a picture of a boat). Each student takes a turn. A variation on this activity is to have the students ask questions instead of using statements (eg. Who has the picture of the boat?). This activity can also be made into a Total Physical Response Activity where the teacher might say, "John find the picture of the boat and give it to Sally."
Objective: Participate in a variety of shared language experiences.
3. SHOE BOX ENGLISH: Over a period of time collect interesting items in a shoe box. Then as a language teaching activity the teacher can pull items from the box and use simple words to name and describe the items. As time progresses students will be able to assist in the naming then eventually the describing of these items. Another use for this activity is to collect items that begin with each letter and keep them in separate shoe boxes. This leads to a letter and letter sound activity done much the same as the above mentioned but focusing on phonemic awareness.
Objective: Use visual cues to locate information and ideas and to construct and confirm meaning.
EARLY LANGUAGE PRODUCTION

1. PICTURE STUDY: Find a fairly complicated picture with lots of activity. Then begin to question the students using questions that would elicit yes/no or one or two word responses. For example if you show a picture of a classroom, you could ask: Is there a woman in this picture? Is the woman young or old? What is the boy at the chalkboard wearing? What color is the woman's dress? etc.
Objective: Interpret illustrations, photographs, diagrams, maps, graphs, and other visual texts.
2. NAME ACTIVITIES: Have the students use the sheet provided to learn and reinforce the learning of their first, middle, and last names. As an extension use the made up luggage tags provided to have the students interview each other in order to fill out the information. (It is also possible to obtain real luggage tags from a travel agency.) You can also use names to play games such as "If your last name is ____________ then stand up."
Objective: Select from a range of word choices and use simple sentence patterns to communicate ideas and information.

EXTENDING LANGUAGE PRODUCTION

1. OPEN-ENDED SENTENCES: In this activity the students are encouraged to create open-ended sentences. Using the sheet provided have the students fill in the blanks then share answers. The students are asked to use one word to fill in the blank but some may quickly progress to short phrases.
Objective: Reread to ensure ideas make sense and add more information if necessary.
2. OPEN-DIALOG: The development of open-dialog is also useful for early production. Photocopy the provided sheet onto an overhead sheet or write the phrases on the board. Then the short dialogs are practiced in small groups depending on the size of the group. Also useful would be The Shoe Box English Activity (above) where you could extend the amount of conversation about each item chosen.
Objective: Experiment with the rhythms and sounds of language.

Sonnet poem;My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun;
My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun;
Coral is far more red than her lips' red;
If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun;
If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head.
I have seen roses damask'd, red and white,
But no such roses see I in her cheeks;
And in some perfumes is there more delight
Than in the breath that from my mistress reeks.
I love to hear her speak, yet well I know
That music hath a far more pleasing sound;
I grant I never saw a goddess go;
My mistress, when she walks, treads on the ground.
And yet, by heaven, I think my love as rare
As any she belied with false compare.
Sonnet 130William Shakespeare

analysis:of sonnet poem;my mistress’s eyes…
My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun; Coral is far more red than her lip's red; If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun, If hair be wires, black wires grow on her head. I have seen roses damasked, red and white, But no such roses see I in her cheeks;
goddess go; My mistress, when she walks, treads on the ground. And yet, by heaven, I think my love as rare As any she belied with false compare.
This is a sonnet. All sonnets consist of fourteen verses. Also, each verse has ten syllables. The stress pattern is weak, strong, weak, strong. Each pattern of weak and strong syllables gives us a foot, so we can say that each verse has five feet. This sonnet is therefore in iambic pentameter.
The rhyme scheme of the sonnet is as follows: a, b, a, b, c, d, c, d, e, f, e, f, g, g. The last two verses rhyme which is typical of the Shakespearean sonnet. The rhyme scheme of the sonnet is highly regular as is the case with this one.
In this sonnet Shakespeare compares his mistress' eyes to the sun. He makes the case that her eyes are very different from the sun. Though the sun is beautiful and glowing, it has little in common with his mistress' eyes. Though they may be beautiful, reality is that they can't be compared to the sun.
Likewise, other parts of nature are very different from parts of his mistress. For example, coral has a very different shade of red from his mistress' lips and no roses are present in his mistress' cheeks. This differs from the words of some men who claim that their women have the light of the sun in their eyes, coral lips and rosy cheeks. Shakespeare expresses that though men might make these comparisons, they aren't accurate, at least not when he gazes upon his mistress. When he speaks of perfume, he notes that at times her breath reeks. Many perfumes have a sweeter fragrance.
Shakespeare expresses the reality that one's breath isn't always perfect and one doesn't always look spectacular. Over time the attraction that brings people too closer can wane. In fact, physical attraction isn't constant nor stable. For this reason, a couple need much more to remain together.
Though the sonnet may appear to be negative, it has positive words towards the end. It clarifies that although reality can be quite different from our dreams and desires, or that relationships have their ups and downs, he knows that his love for his mistress is intense. He describes it as rare and makes it clear that he doesn't need to make false comparisons about her to know that in his heart he has tremendous love for her. Some men may utter false words, but he doesn't need to because he accepts her as she is and is truly in love with her.
In Shakespeare's "My Mistress' Eyes are nothing like the Sun", he explains that he can't make false comparisons about his mistress. He's been with her a long time and knows her well. Though her eyes are nothing like the sun, it is of no consequence because he knows that his love for her is rare. He prefers to show his love for her through his actions rather than through false words.

sonnet poem

Let me not to the marriage of true minds

Shakespeare

Let me not to the marriage of true minds
Admit impediments; love is not love
Which alters when it alteration finds,
Or bends with the remover to remove.
O, no, it is an ever-fixed mark
That looks on tempests and is never shaken;
It is the star to every wand’ring bark,
Whose worth’s unknown, although his height be taken.
Love ’s not Time’s fool, though rosy lips and cheeks
Within his bending sickle’s compass come;
Love alters not with his brief hours and weeks,
But bears it out even to the edge of doom.
If this be error and upon me proved,
I never writ, nor no man ever loved.

William Shakespeare’s poem “Sonnet 116 is a sonnet in Shakespearean form. The subject of this poem is love and the main theme is that love endures. The poet-speaker is a man who is describing love with a stately tone. Judging by the knowledge the speaker has about love, it is probably safe to assume that he is a mature adult. Throughout the poem, the poet-speaker discusses how true love cannot have alterations, how love is comparable to a guide, and finally how it can withstand time itself. The first stanza in this poem is a quatrain and its rhyme scheme is abab. Shakespeare uses alliteration, assonance, consonance, and repetition to develop this stanza, which, as a whole, states that love does not change. The first line contains an example of alliteration in the words “me,” “marriage,” and “minds.” In this line, he is referring to love as “the marriage of true minds.” He uses the alliteration of the “m” sound to draw attention to his view of love as being a type of marriage. The words “admit” and “impediments” in the second line are examples of both assonance and consonance because of the identical “i” and “m” sounds. These two words placed beside each other help give the poem a flow that makes it much more pleasing to the ear, not only because of the assonance and consonance, but also because the words almost rhyme with each other. The second, third, and fourth lines of this stanza contain repetition. “Love,” “alter,” and “remove” are repeated to put emphasis on the points that he is trying to make. He is saying that if a person is really in love he or she would not have to make changes in their lover to make themself happy, and that love cannot be taken back.The second stanza of this poem is a quatrain with a rhyme scheme of cdcd. This stanza contains assonance, a very clever metaphor, and personification in stating that love is ever-lasting and can be used as a guide in life. The words “star” and “bark” in line eight of the poem contain assonance of the “a” sound. Shakespeare uses this assonance to bring attention to the metaphor he is using, which compares love to the North Star, which is a guide for barks, or ships. By following their hearts, people can use love as a guide to get them through life. Also, the North Star is relatively permanent, and Shakespeare says love is an “ever-fixed mark” in line five of the poem. Line eight refers to a star when it says “Whose worth’s unknown, although his height be taken.” Stars have no ownership nor a set gender, so this line contains personification. Shakespeare speaks of love as if it were human to express the importance of it.The third stanza of this poem is another quatrain and its rhyme scheme is efef. Personification, assonance, and consonance help to get the point across that love is independent of time. In lines eight and nine, Shakespeare says “Love’s not Time’s fool, though rosy lips and cheeks within his bending sickle’s compass come.” Even though beauty fades with time, love does not. Shakespeare personifies time to help express that love does not operate on any specific clock. He even capitalizes “Time” as if it were a real person’s name. He also personifies death in line nine when he refers to the bending sickle, which would be the weapon of the infamous Grimm Reaper. Death can take away physical traits, but not

true love. Assonance can be found in line eleven in the words “brief” and “week.” Shakespeare purposely includes this assonance to add to the rhythm of the poem while he expresses his view of love as not yielding to time or any other force. The use of the words “but” and “bear” in line twelve of the poem is an example of alliteration. Shakespeare uses these words to help express that love can survive anything on its own despite the pressures and influences of time.The fourth and final stanza of this poem is a couplet with a rhyme scheme of gg. In this stanza, the poet-speaker boasts how confident he is in his opinion of love, suggesting that if his opinion is wrong, no one has ever loved. The end rhyme of these two lines is slant rhyme because “proved” and “loved” do not rhyme exactly. In line fourteen, the poet-speaker declares “I never writ, nor no man ever loved.” The words “never,” “no,” and “nor” are an example of alliteration. These negative words are used to strengthen the poet-speaker’s certainty of his opinion of love. Line fourteen also has internal rhyme. “Never” and “ever” are positioned before the word “loved”. Shakespeare uses this internal rhyme to make it clear that the speaker has full faith in his own words.William Shakespeare’s poem “Sonnet 116 is an excellent poem. Using multiple literary tools, such as metaphors, personification, and internal rhyme, Shakespeare has created a masterpiece that describes love by what it is and is not. Because of the brilliant use of tools and flow in this poem, it will remain one of the best poems ever written.

Synopsis and Analysis

Lines seven and eight may require some explanation to those not familiar with the terms used: a bark, or barque, is a sailing vessel; and stars were used for navigation at sea, known as celestial navigation. Therefore, the star to a wandering bark is the fixed mark in the sky which can be relied upon for guidance. Thus love is the 'ever-fixed mark that looks on tempests and is never shaken'.
Line eight specifically has come in for varied analysis by a number of commentators. The worth gleaned from height has been seen by some as a reference to the elevation of the star used in navigation. An alternative explanation is that displacement of the ship may be used by some to gauge the value of the cargo aboard. The theme of sailing and ships is prevalent here, so the displacement of a ship to detail its worth is more likely than a star's height.
Commentary
The persona aims to describe to the reader the nature of love through what love is not, and uses techniques such as repetition and allusions to the Episcopal Book to do this. In the opening lines of the sonnet, the persona bids the reader to “Let me not to the marriage of true minds/ Admit impediments.” It is inevitable that we make a connection to the Episcopal Book, where it is stated, “…if either of you do know any impediment why you may not be lawfully joined together in matrimony, that ye confess it.” While it is important to recognize the significance of this allusion, in this sonnet the persona is using this reference mainly to emphasize the communion of two people through their common factor, love. The phrase "or bends with the remover to remove" implies, however, that true love continues even when it is not shared, when it is no longer a "common factor." True love, that is, is both unconditional and eternal.
The first line acts as a prologue for the poem and is followed by the main content of the sonnet. Shakespeare uses enjambment in the second line to create a sense of acceleration and move the reader away from the opening and into the depths of the poem. The persona goes on to say that true love will endure all obstacles, as is evident in the line, “or alters when it alteration finds,” where the use of repetition of “alter” connotes an instability of superficial love, which changes when faced with change. In the first quatrain, the persona aims to define love through what it is not, while in the next quatrain he defines love based on what it is: eternal and unconditional

commitment.

The persona uses metaphorical comparison, personification and epithet very effectively in demonstrating the guiding, stable, determined nature of love. Shakespeare describes love as an “ever-fixed mark,/ that
looks on tempest, and is never shaken;” The use of the epithet “ever-fixed” for mark creates an image of a solid wall of courage and determination in the face of a menacing ocean storm. A tempest means
certain trouble to a sailor, but the courageous face of love does not falter in the presence of this intimidating image. The use of the phrase, “O no;” slows the pace of the poem and foreshadows the metaphor that is to follow. Love is presented as a guiding force through the use of the metaphor, “It is the star to every wandering bark.” The use of the verb “wandering” creates a sense of aimlessness and confusion the “barks,” or boats have, and the need for the North Star to guide them on their way. Whilst the image created by the word “star” is one of guidance, it also connotes a brilliance that love has as it shines about all else in the heavens above. In the sonnet love is effectively described as a guiding and courageous force, which is then succeeded by an image of eternality and endurance created after the volta.
It is important that Shakespeare makes reference to “fool,” given the socio-historical context in which this sonnet was written. As we see others of Shakespeare’s works, a fool is often a joker present only for the entertainment of nobility. In this sonnet, time is that nobility. Shakespeare wishes to create an image that love is not dependent or victim to the forces of external factors. In the line, “sickle’s compass come;” alliteration is used to echo the destructive forces of time. The harsh “c” sound is onomatopoeic and emphases the impeding nature of time. A sense beyond time and place is created in the lines leading up to the couplet, as the persona states that “Love alters not with his brief hour and weeks, But bears it out even to the edge of doom.” Love in these lines is seen be an enduring force, and will persevere until “the edge of doom,” or Judgment Day, if not beyond. The long vowel sound in the verb “bears,” when juxtaposed with the harsher “c” sound of the lines before, emphasizes the eternal nature of love. The rhyming couplet of this sonnet is somewhat an anti-climax. For twelve lines the persona carefully defines and describes love by a variety of means, while the final two lines do not make any sort of profound suggestion. The final quasi-rhyming couplet is more a statement than a resolution, but nevertheless a bold one. The final couplet states, “If this be error, and upon me prov’d,/ I never writ, nor no man ever lov’d.” That is, those who know the fullness of love understand its eternal and unconditional nature. The emphatic statement at the end is thus a repudiation of all lesser conceptions of love, including a merely romantic conception.
This sonnet is recognized as one of the premier sonnets of William Shakespeare. The eloquent use of allusion and metaphorical imagery aid the dreamy purpose of personifying love and to show the knowledge of the author of the timelessness and power of love.

romantic poem

THE CLOD AND THE PEBBLE


Love seeketh not Itself to please

,Nor for itself hath any care;

But for another gives its ease,

And builds a Heaven in Hell's despair.

So sang a little Clod of Clay, ا

Trodden with the cattle's feet:

But a pebble of the brook,

Warbled out these metres meet.

Love seeketh only Self to please,

To bind another to Its delight:

Joys in another's loss of ease,

And builds a Hell in Heaven's despite.
w.blake

Romanticism is a complex artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Western Europe, and gained strength during the Industrial Revolution.[1] It was partly a revolt against aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment and a reaction against the scientific rationalization of nature, and was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and literature.
The movement stressed strong emotion as a source of aesthetic experience, placing new emphasis on such emotions as trepidation, horror and awe—especially that which is experienced in confronting the sublimity of untamed nature and its picturesque qualities, both new aesthetic categories. It elevated folk art and custom to something noble, and argued for a "natural" epistemology of human activities as conditioned by nature in the form of language, custom and usage.
Our modern sense of a romantic character is sometimes based on Byronic or Romantic ideals. Romanticism reached beyond the rational and Classicist ideal models to elevate medievalism and elements of art and narrative perceived to be authentically medieval, in an attempt to escape the confines of population growth, urban sprawl and industrialism, and it also attempted to embrace the exotic, unfamiliar and distant in modes more authentic than chinoiserie, harnessing the power of the imagination to envision and to escape.
The ideologies and events of the French Revolution laid the background from which Romanticism emerged. The confines of the Industrial Revolution also had their influence on Romanticism, which was in part an escape from modern realities; indeed, in the second half of the nineteenth century, "Realism" was offered as a polarized opposite to Romanticism. Romanticism elevated the achievements of what it perceived as misunderstood heroic individuals and artists that altered society. It also legitimized the individual imagination as a critical authority which permitted freedom from classical notions of form in art. There was a strong recourse to historical and natural inevitability, a Zeitgeist, in the representation of its ideas

ANALYSIS OF THE POEM
1-Subject;

The poem is about two different points of view from love. One of view is from The Clod and other is from The Pebble. The two views coexist and each view insures each other. The one can not never exist without the other.
The poem shows contrast between these two personalities (the clod and the pebble). The two contrasting points of view on love.
We can see the theme of love and the different aspects form it: love is altruistic, selfish..
2-Structure;

It is not a complex poem. There are two statements from two characters and a comment. Two statements are opposite. It is a basic disagreement, a reply. We can find verbs such as “sung”, “warbled”, which represent the idea of music. We can find a reporting statement from the first speaker. The two participants talk about a third character who is not present. Only the Clod and the Pebble are present. The third character is “love”.
The first line and second line are coordinated but in the third line we have got a different succession because of the word “but” that means that there is a conflict.
We have an image: “Love seeketh not itself to please” means that love is selfless.
The line 1 and 2 indicates that love to the clod is good. The clod´s song is full of optimism
In the second stanza, we have the two participants. The clod is described as “trodden with the cattle feet”, that means that the clod has been trampled on but he does not mind what is going to happen because he accepts that.
In the first line we have the word “clay”, that means that the clod is soft, not hard. Soft means something sentimental, unrealistic, weak.
Later we have the other participant, the Pebble. The Pebble is hard. Hard means something cinical, unsentimental, realistic. He has a different point of view from the Clod. He is someone who has suffered of love. He described love as selfish.
We have another image: the Pebble of the brook. This image says where is the Pebble. In the brook. This image explains the negative vision that love is or what will be. The Pebble has a negative tone.
In the last line of second stanza, the word “meet” has the idea of “appropiate”.
Why the Pebble´s metres are appropiated? Perhaps there is an ambiguity. The two views are balanced one and other. The one can not exist without the other.
In the third stanza, we have a dark image.
The first line: Love seeketh only Self to please means that love is selfish and for this reason the word “Self” is capitalized.
In the first and third line we can observe: please-ease. These words have an idea of pleasure.
We have another image. Heaven has two meanings:
1) it is associated with the idea of pleasure.
2) It is associated with the idea of pain, suffering.
When the poem says: builds a Hell in Heaven´s despite means that the Pebble believes that love corrupts purity, honesty
3-Rhyme:

The rhyme scheme in the first and third stanza is the same: ABBA
4-Personal Response; This poem shows the two contrasting views of love. We can find two participants and maybe we can say that the Clod is a female and the Pebble is a male. Why am I saying this? Because of the characters´s speech since if we see this poem from a context of sexual love, we see that the Clod shows a kind of pure and altruistic love (related with the concept of giving) that belongs to women; and the Pebble shows a selfish love (related with the concept of receiving) that belongs to men.
This poem has been interesting because shows different points of view. These points of view are present in real life since when we fall in love, our relationship can be good (an altruistic love) or bad (selfish love). You decide what kind of love you want to have. But sometimes it does not depends on you.

the clod and the pebble=brief analysis

This poem portrays two very different perceptions of love, one by the pebble and one by the clod. The use of the term clod leads the reader to have a mental image of a lump of earth, and hence mouldable. The clod has a very benevolent image of love entrenched in its mind. It has the impression that love is unselfish and cares -- "Love seekth not itself to please,/Nor for itself hath any care". It also has the impression that love is a release, a warm embrace in contrast to this cold world that we live in, bringing paradise down to this cruel world -- "But for another gives it ease,/And builds a Heaven in Hell's despair". The pebble here in this poem however, has a very different take on love. It is also noted that the image of the pebble gives the reader an image of a rock which has been smoothed by the movement of debbris rubbing against it, attacking it, perhaps symbolising a person in today's cold and harsh society where circumstances and past experiences have constantly bombarded him/her. Here, the pebble sees love as selfish and, in the process, limiting and suffocating, bringing unhappiness to a place which would have been paradise without it -- "Love seekth only Self to please,/To bind another to its delight,/Joys in another's loss of ease,/And builds a Hell in Heaven's despite". However in this poem, the poet says that the "little Clod of Clay/Trodden with the cattle's feet", this could be the opinion of the poet, that the clod, like the many naive innocents we see, has suffered because of love and yet still goes on believing that love is all pure and unselfish, goes on believing in that benevolent imgae of love that it has. Whereas the pebble, in comparison much more experienced and attuned to the workings of love, is aware of the hurt, selfishness and suffocation love brings and the true form that it exists in. The poet William Blake leaves the pebble's words to the last perhaps to further enhance the effects of those words as it leaves the reader with the phrases resounding in his/her mind. This poem is thus essentially pointing out the opinion of the poet that love is not what the naive and innocent make it out to be, it is not all that unselfish and a refuge, instead, the poet is perhaps trying to tell us that love really is selfish and not liberating as the innocents might claim it to be.

ballad poem lord randall

lord randall

ballad, a folk song or orally transmitted poem telling in a direct and dramatic manner some popular story usually derived from a tragic incident in local history or legend. The story is told simply, impersonally, and often with vivid dialogue. Ballads are normally composed in quatrains with alternating four‐stress and three‐stress lines, the second and fourth lines rhyming (see ballad metre); but some ballads are in coup
some others have six‐line stanzas. Appearing in many parts of Europe in the late Middle Ages, ballads flourished particularly strongly in Scotland from the 15th century onward. Since the 18th century, educated poets outside the folk‐song tradition—notably Coleridge and Goethe— have written imitations of the popular ballad's form and style: Coleridge's ‘Rime of the Ancient Mariner’ (1798) is a celebrated example

Poem Summary

lord randall ballad poem (ANONYMOUS POPET)
Lines 1-4


The first stanza introduces the main character, the nobleman Lord Randal. The listener also learns that he is “handsome” and “young.” His youth suggests that he is susceptible to danger, because he probably lacks worldly experience that would enable him to sense and thwart treachery. Lord Randal’s mother asks him where he has been, and he answers that he has been hunting in the forest; he says he is tired, and he requests that she ready his bed for him because he would like to lie down. In this first stanza, there is no indication of anything out of the ordinary about Lord Randal’s day, but the fact that he has been in the “greenwood,” or forest, carries with it the connotation of adventure and danger.

Lines 5-8

As if she suspects that her son has been doing something other than hunting, Lord Randal’s mother asks him who he met in the forest. He answers that he met his “true love” there and repeats his complaint of tiredness and request that his bed be readied for him. The idea of meeting a sweetheart on a hunting trip raises the first suspicion that something out of the ordinary has happened to Lord Randal.

Lines 9-12

The mother continues her questioning, asking Lord Randal what he received from his sweetheart. He answers that he ate fried eels that she gave him. Once again, Lord Randal concludes his answer with his complaint and request. At this third repetition, it seems more urgent that Lord Randal be given a place to rest.

Lines 13-16

The mother now asks Lord Randal who got his leftover food. He answers her that he gave it to his hunting birds and hounds. (Trained hounds and hawks were used to chase prey and to retrieve it after it was shot.) Lord Randal again complains of his tiredness and asks for his bed to be made ready. At this point, the listener becomes curious about the mother’s line of questioning and also anxious for Lord Randal.

Lines 17-20


Lord Randal’s mother asks him what happened to his hawks and his hounds. He tells her that they became bloated and died, and then, once again, he says that he is tired and wants to lie down. The pieces of the story begin to come together — Lord Randal’s pets died with symptoms of poisoning after eating the same food that Lord Randal ate. His statement that the hunting tired him and his request for a bed, now repeated for the fifth time, suggest his own illness.
6"O I fear you are poisoned, Lord Randal, my son!I fear you are poisoned, my handsome young man!""O yes, I am poisoned; mother, mak my bed soon,For I'm sick at the heart, and fain wad lie down."
Critical Overview

In his collection of essays The Ballad as Song, Bertrand Harris Bronson lists “Lord Randal” as one of the seven most popular ballads in the world. As he puts it, the popularity of this ballad and many others stems from its presentation of “love as a disease from which no one recovers.” Louise Pound discusses the transformation of “Lord Randal” into several American ballads. She points out that it has been sung in all regions of the country, going through transitions that fit it to the culture in which it reappears. For example, in the nineteenth century it was sung in Colorado as a railway camp song about the tragic poisoning of “Johnny Randal” by his sweetheart. Though it has been popular for centuries, the listener never knows why Lord Randal’s “true love” poisons him. In explanation, MacEd-ward Leach discusses “the tendency in the ballad to pass quickly over the first half of the plot — the unstable situation — to come to the second — the solution.” He feels that listeners traditionally accept this lack of background information because they are “the folk [who] are not concerned with why, for they are not introspective or analytical. Rather they are concerned with the drama of the moment and the character’s reaction to it.” Leach reminds the reader that ballads belong to common folk who have kept them alive through the centuries, and these people enjoy the dramatic tension of an immediate encounter, such as this one between Lord Randal and his mother at their last meeting before his death.
Themes
DEATH, Guilt and Innocence
1-Death
The first part of the conversation between the mother and son that comprises “Lord Randal” gradually reveals how Lord Randal comes to be dying prematurely and relates the emotional reaction of the mother to this situation. At the beginning of each stanza, Lord Randal’s mother prompts him with a question, from which she gets a terse reply. The withholding of complete details in her son’s answers prompts the mother to ask another question. The gradual way in which the mother learns of her son’s condition creates a sense of tension in her words — from the very opening lines, “O where ha’ you been, Lord Randal, my son? And where ha’ you been, my handsome young man?” her sense of panic crescendoes until it reaches an apex in the sixth stanza when she exclaims, “O I fear you are poisoned, Lord Randal, my son! I fear you are poisoned, my handsome young man!” The use of exclamation points in this stanza relates to the reader the mother’s sense of dread as she realizes that her son’s death is imminent.
Likewise, Lord Randal’s responses to his mother’s questions reveal his own reaction to his impending death. His responses, however, are largely open to interpretation. One thing is for certain, though: Lord Randal’s statements are much milder than those of his mother. His repetitive, matter-of-fact responses to his mother’s questions are not what one expects from someone who is dying. It can argued, therefore, that Lord Randal is in shock and in denial of the situation, insofar as he states that he is merely “wearied wi’ huntin.” This implies that Lord Randal is dealing with his death by not acknowledging the fact that he is dying. Notice in the sixth stanza how mild his response is to his mother’s exclamations: “O yes, I am poisoned, mother, mak my bed soon, / For I’m sick at the heart, and I fain wad lie down.” It is as if he has just remembered that he was poisoned. He is of sound enough mind to state his last will and testament to his mother, and yet does not have a frenzied reaction to his own demise.
The common folk of the Middle Ages, especially the high Middle Ages, surrounded the death experience in religious ritual in order to find reassurance and comfort in a life after death. According to Frances and Joseph Gies in their work Marriage and the Family in the Middle Ages, “death was immured in ritual, the laments of daughters and daughters-in-law commencing before the stricken peasant expired and continuing until burial,” and that “to the man or woman on the deathbed two things were important: to be surrounded by one’s family and, whatever the ritual, to achieve salvation.” The ideal situation for a death in the Middle Ages was for an individual to anticipate his death, having suffered an illness or debilitating wound. In doing so, the person could ensure the two essential requirements were met. In Lord Randal’s case, however, death has caught him unprepared. This certainly increased the already frightening experience of dying. Due to the lack of detail in the ballad, it is hard to ascertain whether or not Lord Randal was surrounded by any family members other than his mother. However, based on the two-sided conversation, it seems fair to surmise that his sister and brother were not present, and the father is never mentioned in the poem. It is also impossible to determine whether or not Lord Randal received the aid of a member of the clergy in his final moments. However, evidence would suggest that he did not participate in any salvation-producing ritual. Therefore, Lord Randal achieved neither of the desired elements of the ideal death experience. His was a worst-case scenario of dying: unprepared and unsaved. This is one of the key reasons why the ballad “Lord Randal” has remained in existence for so many centuries: it is unnerving, causing one to consider the possibilities of an extremely fearful death experience.

2-Guilt and Innocence

While the themes of guilt and innocence in “Lord Randal” are not as readily apparent as the theme of death, they do exist outside the text of the ballad. These ideas are conjured in the reader’s mind after the ballad has been read. The obvious perpetrator of the crime is the lover; she poisoned Lord Randal and is therefore guilty. The converse theme, coupled with the emotion surrounding his death, leads the reader to view Lord Randal as the victim and, therefore, as innocent. After the initial shock of the story fades, the reader begins to question the events leading to the action depicted in the ballad. However, because no detail is provided by the author, the reader is left to wonder: Why did she poison him? Did they quarrel? Was he unfaithful? The distinction between guilt and innocence begins to fade. If Lord Randal was unfaithful, or if they did argue, then he is not completely innocent; and, some may argue, if she had some cause to poison him, she would not be completely guilty. In crimes of passion, it is often difficult to adequately place blame. The author uses the themes of guilt and innocence in such a way as to create an unanswerable riddle that has persisted through the ages.